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a. 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF    CHILD    STUDY 


■The^)C^>^ 


FUNDAMENTALS 

OF 

CHILD    STUDY 

A    DISCUSSION    OF 

INSTINCTS    AND    OTHER    FACTORS 

IN    HUMAN    DEVELOPMENT 

WITH 

PRACTICAL    APPLICATIONS 

BY 

EDWIN    A.    KIRKPATRICK,  B.S.,  M.Ph. 

AUTHOR   OF  "INDUCTIVE   PSYCHOLOGY" 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  AND  CO..  Ltd. 
1904 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1903, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up,  electrotyped,  and  published  October,  1903.      Reprinted 
April,  1904. 


NarfajootJ  ^rrss 

J.  S.  Cashing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &;  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


Kiel  f 


To  my  lamented  Friend 

LOUIS  H.    GALBREATH 

ivhose  generous  and  genial  personality  has  gladdened 
and  ennobled  many  lives,  and  ivhose  broad  views, 
sti??iulating  prese?ire,  and  suggestive  conversations 
have  often  i?ispired  and  directed  my  thought  and 
work  as  a7i  individual  a?id  an  educator 

Wh,\%  Book  is  ^ffcctionatelt)  Qetiicateti 


PREFACE  #f 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  present,  in  an  organized 
form,  an  outline  of  the  new  science  of  child  study  for 
investigators,  students,  teachers,  and  parents.  It  is 
the  fruit  of  fourteen  years'  experience  in  studying  and 
teaching  child  study,  and  of  seven  years'  experience 
x^  as  a  father.  Most  of  the  work  has  been  presented 
♦^  successfully,  in  nearly  its  present  form,  to  normal 
students. 

The  great  task  of  the  author  has  been  to  decide  what 

to    leave   out   of   the    book.     Many  paragraphs  might 

easily  have  been  expanded  into  chapters.     It  was  the 

I    original  intention  to  summarize  all  the  principal  child- 

'^  study  investigations  that  have  been  made.      Lack  of 

^  space    and   the   fact   that    much   of    the    literature    of 

•  child   study   is   in   the   nature   of    preliminary   studies 

^  likely  to  be  superseded  by  later  investigations,  caused 

^  this  plan  to  be  abandoned;   hence  only  a  few  specific 

^  facts  and  figures  are  quoted,  while  prominence  is  given 

^  to   the   foundations  of   child   study  in  other   sciences, 

and    to    the    more    general,  permanent,  and    practical 

^  truths  thus  far  revealed  by  students  of  children. 

The  treatment  of  each  topic  is,  in  a  way,  complete 
in  itself,  though  related  to  every  other  and  intended 
to  be  worked  out  more  completely  by  reading,  obser- 


fq 


viii  PREFACE 

vation,  experiment,  and  discussion,  so  far  as  time  will 
permit.  To  aid  readers  and  students  in  assimilating 
and  supplementing  the  text,  exercises  and  references 
are  given  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  In  class  work 
the  recitation  periods  may  we]l  be  taken  up  largely  in 
discussions  of  theae  exercises  and  m  reports  of  reading, 
though  if  preferred  they  may  be  ignored  and  the  text 
alone  studied  and  recited.  It  is  hoped  that  the  plan 
of  the  book  will  adapt  itself  to  the  use  of  intelHgent 
parents  and  to  classes  in  normal  schools  and  univer- 
sities, with  varying  preparation  and  amount  of  time 
to  devote  to  the  subject.  Many  parents  will  prefer 
to  begin  with  chapter  five  and  to  omit  chapter  four- 
teen  and   perhaps   some   of   the  chapters  that  follow. 

No  attempt  is  made  to  give  a  complete  bibliography, 
as  there  are  already  several  good  ones.     A  list  of  child 
study  books  for  the  benefit  of  those  not  familiar  with 
the  literature  of  the  subject  is  given  in  the  first  of  the 
book.     Suggestions  for  reading  will  be  found  at  the 
close  of  each  chapter,  and  at  the  back  of  the  book  are 
given  the  full  name  of  journals  often  referred  to  and  an  ^ 
alphabetical  list  of  all  books  named  in  the  text.     Since   "  t 
the  references  that  will  be  most  valuable  in  connection 
with  each  chapter  depend  upon  what  literature  is  acces-  p 
sible,  the  time  that  can  be  spent  in  reading,  the  maturity  . . 
of  the  reader,  and  the  phases  of  the  subject  which  it  is  , 
desired  to  emphasize,  each  teacher  will,  in  part,  wish  to 
make  his  own  reference  list.     A  blank  page  is  therefore  '^ 
left  for  this  purpose. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  many  earnest  students 
of  children,  especially  to  G.  Stanley  Hall,  the  father  of 
all  child  study  in  America;  to  J.   Mark  Baldwin,  who 


PREFACE  ix 

has  given  us  a  theory  of  organic  development ;  to 
Lloyd  Morgan,  who  has  described  instincts  and  habits 
with  such  acuteness  and  clearness ;  and  to  Earl  Barnes, 
who  has  so  intelligently  studied  the  effects  of  social 
influences  upon  children ;  also  to  Mr.  J.  F.  Reigart  and 
to  my  wife  for  assisting  with  the  proofs,  and  to  my 
friend  Rev.  W.  F.  Greenman  for  suggestions. 

E.  A.  K. 

Fitch  BURG  Normal  School, 
July,  1903. 


CONTENTS 


Child  Study  Literature   . 


PAGE 

xix 


CHAPTER   I 


NATURE,    SCOPE,   AND    PROBLEMS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Difference  between  Children  and  Adults 

Origin  of  Child  Study      .... 

Period  covered  by  Child  Study 

Significance  of  Infancy     .... 

Why  Higher  Animals  have  a  Longer  Infancy  than  the  Lower 

Human  Infancy  and  Plasticity 

Inner  and  Outer  Factors  in  Development 

The  Problem  to  be  solved 

Generality  of 'Inner  Forces  of  Development 

Exercises  for'Students     .... 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


I 

2 

3 
3 
4 
6 

7 

10 

II 

12 
12 


CHAPTER    II 

PHYSICAL   GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT 

General  Phenomena  of  Growth         ......  15 

General  Truths  regarding  Growth  of  Children  .         .         .16 

Factors  determining  Growth    . 17 

Growth  of  Parts 19 

Health  and  Growth 20 

Growth  and  Development        .......  22 

Natural  Order  of  Development  in  Relation  to  Exercise     .         .  24 

Exercises  for  Students 28 

Suggestions  for  Reading 29 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   III 

NATIVE   MOTOR    ACTIVITIES   AND   GENERAL   ORDER   OF 
DEVELOPMENT 

PAGE 

Kinds  of  Native  Movements 32 

Instincts  and  Structure 34 

Instincts  and  Consciousness 35 

Conditions  affecting  tlie  Usefulness  of  Instincts        ...  40 

Fixed  and  Indefinite  Instincts 42 

Continuous,  Transient,  and  Periodic  Instincts           ...  44 

Principles  governing  the  Development  of  Instincts  ...  44 

Causes  of  Differences  in  Individuals  of  the  Same  Species           .  46 

Exercises  for  Students     ........  48 

Suggestions  for  Reading 49 

CHAPTER   IV 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSTINCTS 

Basis  of  Classification 51 

1.     Individualistic  or  Self-preservative  Instincts    ...  52 

II.     Parental  Instincts 53 

III.  Group  or  Social  Instincts 54 

IV.  Adaptive  Instincts 56 

Imitation 58 

Play 58 

Curiosity 59 

V.     Regulative  Instincts         .......  60 

VI.     Resultant  and  Miscellaneous  Instincts  and  Feelings         .  62 

Exercises  for  Students 63 

Suggestions  for  Reading 63 

CHAPTER   V 

THE   EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    HU.MAN   INFANT 

Early  Movements    .........  65 

Increase  in  Complexity  of  Movement        .....  67 

Early  Mental  States 69 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

Development  of  Voluntary  Control 72 

Learning  to  Walk 79 

Modes  of  Learning  .         .         . 81 

Relation  of  Instincts  to  Mental  Activities         ....  86 

Exercises  for  Students     ........  88 

Suggestions  for  Reading 88 

CHAPTER   VI 

DEVELOPMENT   OF    INDIVIDUALISTIC   INSTINCTS 

Strength  of  the  Instinct  .         .         .         . ,        .         .         .         '9^ 

Prominence  in  the  Young         .......       92 

Development  of  the  Individualistic  Instincts  into  Motives  .  94 
Individualism  the  Basis  of  Higher  Development  ...  96 
The  Feeding  Instinct       ........       99 

Fear -99 

The  Fighting  Instinct 104 

Exercises  for  Students .106 

Suggestions  for  Reading .107 

CHAPTER    VII 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   PARENTAL   AND   THE  SOCIAL 
INSTINCTS 

I.   The  Parental  Instinct 109 

Lateness  of  Development  ......     109 

Relation  of  the  Parental  Instinct  to  Other  Impulses 
and  Feelings  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .111 

Right  Development  of  the  Parental  Instinct        .         .113 
II.   Development  of  the  Social  Instinct    .         .         .         .         .118 

1.  Gregariousness 119 

2.  Sympathy     ........     120 

3.  Love  of  Approbation 121 

4.  Altruism 123 

Exercises  for  Students 125 

Suggestions  for  Reading 126 


XIV 


/ 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    VIII 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION 

Characteristics  of  Imitation  in  Children    . 
Classification  of  Imitative  Acts  of  Children 
Development  of  Imitation 


Reflex  Imitation  . 
Spontaneous  Imitation 
Dramatic  Imitation 
Voluntary  Imitation 
Idealistic  Imitation 

Exercises  for  Students     . 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


CHAPTER   IX 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  PLAY 


Theory  of  Play 

Work,  Pla)',  and  Amusement  ..... 

Changes  with  Age  as  regards  Freedom  in  Play 
Changes  with  Age  as  regards  Powers  used  in  Play   . 
Changes  with  Age  as  regards  Instincts  involved  in  Play 
Play  as  a  Factor  in  Education  .         .         .         .         c 

Exercises  for  Students      ...... 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


CHAPTER   X 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  CURIOSITY 


Function  of  Curiosity 
Curiosity,  Attention,  and  Interest 
Changes  in  Curiosity  with  Age 
Curiosity  and  Education  . 
Exercises  for  Students     . 
Suggestions  for  Reading 


CONTENTS 


XV 


CHAPTER  XI 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATrVE 


I.    Moral  Instincts  ...... 

Preparatory  Stage  of  Moral  Development  . 
Moral  Training  during  the  Preparatory  Stage 
Transition  Stage  of  Moral  Development     . 
Moral  Training  in  the  Transition  Stage 

II.    Religious  Instincts     ...... 

Preparatory  Stage  of  Religious  Development 
Religious  Training  in  Childhood 
The  Period  of  Religious  Awakening  . 

Exercises  for  Students     ...... 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


PAGE 

i8i 
i8i 
182 
191 

193 

197 
197 
198 
200 
201 
202 


CHAPTER   XII 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  VARIOUS   RESULTANT 
INSTINCTS   AND   FEELINGS 

The  Collecting  Instinct   . 

The  Constructive  Instinct 

The  ^€!sthetic  Instinct 

The  Migratory  Instinct    . 

The  Rhythmic  Instinct    . 

Relation  of  Instinctive  Actions  to  Feelings  *^ 

Relation  of  Fundamental  Stimuli  to  Feelings 

Exercises  for  Students     .... 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


205 
207 
209 
213 
214 
215 
217 
218 
219 


CHAPTER   XIII 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  THE   EXPRESSIVE 
INSTINCT 


Origin,  Nature,  and  Forms       .... 

I.     Auditory  Language  .... 

Factors  concerned  in  its  Acquisition 


221 

222 
222 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


Stages  of  Learning  Oral  Language 
Instinctive  Stage 
Playful  and  Imitative  Stage 
Word-learning  Stage 
Sentence-making  Stage 
II.     Visual  Language     . 
III.     Drawing  .... 

Exercises  for  Students 
Suggestions  for  Reading 


CHAPTER   XIV 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INTELLECT 

General  Principles  .... 
Development  of  Discrimination 
Development  in  Rate  of  Mental  Activity 
Increase  in  Mental  Grasp 
Development  of  Perception 
Development  of  the  Power  to  Image 
Growth  of  Constructive  Imagination 
Development  of  Creative  Imagination 
Development  of  Memory 
Development  of  Concepts 
Development  of  Reasoning 
Exercises  for  Students 
Suggestions  for  Reading 


CHAPTER  XV 

HEREDITY 


Meaning  .... 

General  Truths  or  Laws  of  Heredity 
General  Theory  of  Heredity    . 
Social  Heredity 
Exercises  for  Students     . 
Suggestions  for  Reading 


CONTENTS 


XVli 


CHAPTER  XVI 


INDWIDUALITY 


Significance  of  the  Term  .... 

Biological  Value  of  Individuality 

Commonality  and  Individuality 

Factors  Producing  Commonality  and  Individuality 

Time  of  Greatest  Individuality 

C^eneral  and  Particular  Truths  regarding  Children 

Necessity  of  Recognizing  Individuality  in  Children 

How  Commonality  and  Individuality  may  be  developed 

Types  of  Individuality      ...... 

Exercises  for  Students     ...... 

Suggestions  for  Reading 


302 
303 
305 
307 
308 

309 
312 

3M 
315 
317 
318 


CHAPTER   XVII 


ABXORMALITIES 


Fatigue 

Nature  and  Causes    . 

Laws  of  Fatigue 

Tests  and  Signs  of  Fatigue 
Some  Abnormal  Brain  States  . 

Nervousness 

Chorea      .... 

Stuttering  and  Stammering 
Adenoid  Growths    . 
Defects  in  Hearing 
Defects  of  Sight 
Exercises  for  Students 
Suggestions  for  Reading 


321 
321 
324 
331 
332 
334 
335 
337 
338 
339 
341 
343 
343 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

CHILD    STUDY   APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS 


Purpose  of  Child  Study  by  Teachers 
Studying  and  Managing  a  School  as  a  Whole  . 


346 
347 


XVm  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Study  and  Treatment  of  Individual  Children    ....  354 

Outlines  for  Observation  .......  356 

Questions  prepared  for  Normal  Students  ....  357 

Reports,  Tests,  and  Records 360 

Suggestions  for  Reading 367 

Alphabetical  List  of  Books 371 

Journals 376 

Index 379 


CHILD    STUDY    LITERATURE 

Books  treating  of  the  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood 

Preyer :  The  Mind  of  the  Child.  2  vols.  ;   Infant  Mind,  condensed 

from  the  above.     Appleton. 
Shinn  :  Biography  of  a  Baby.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Moore:  Mental  Development  of  a  Child.     Macmillan. 
Tracy  :  The  Psychology  of  Childhood.     D.  C.  Heath. 

The  first  three  books  are  each  studies  of  individual  children, 
while  the  last  is  a  summary  of  various  studies. 
Perez  :  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood. 

This  is  an  older  and  less  critical  work. 

Books  containing  Sympathetic  Observations  and  Practical 
Suggestions  regarding  Young  Children 

Harrison  :  A  Study  of  Child  Nature.    Chicago  Kindergarten  College. 
Wiggin :  Children's  Rights.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Malleson  :  Early  Training  of  Children.     D.  C.  Heath. 
Proudfoot :  Mother's  Ideals.     The  Author,  Chicago,  Auditorium. 
Winterburn :    From   a  Child's   Standpoint,   pp.    278,   and   Nursery 

Ethics,  pp.  241.     The  Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,  New  York. 
Du  Bois :   Beckoning  of  Little  Hands,  pp.  166,  and  The  Point  of 

Contact,  pp.  88.     John  D.  Wattles,  Philadelphia. 
Wiltse  :  Place  of  the  Story  in  Early  Education.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Chenery,  Susan  :  As  the  Twig  is  Bent.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Gilman,  C.  P.  (Stetson)  :  Concerning  Children.     Small,  Maynard  & 

Co..  Boston. 

Books  relating  chiefly  to  the  Study  of  Children  in 

School 

Rowe  :  The  Physical  Child.     Macmillan. 

Groszmann  ;  A  Working  System  of  Child  Study  for  Schools.    C.  W. 

Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Warner  :  The  Study  of  Children      Macmillan. 


XX  CHILD   STUDY   LITERATURE 


Autobiographical  and  Literary  Accounts  of  Children 

Aldrich  :  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Howells  :  A  Boy's  Town.     Harpers. 

White  :  Court  of  Boyville.     Doubleday  &  McClure  Co. 

Warner :  Being  a  Boy.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Burnett :  The  One  I  Knew  Best  of  All.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Martin  :  Emmy  Lou.     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

Loti :  Romance  of  a  Child.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Phillips  :  Just  About  a  Boy.     Herbert  S.  Stone  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Laughlin  :  Johnnie.     The  Bowen  Merrill  Co.,  Kansas  City. 

Keller :  Story  of  My  Life.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Smith,  W.  H.  :  The  Evolution  of  Dodd.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Canton:  W.  V.,  Her  Book  and  Various  Verses,    pp.  150.     Stone  & 

Kimball,  N.Y. 
Meynell,  Alice:  The  Children,  pp.  134.     John  Lane,  N.  Y.,  1897. 


Books  treating  of  Various  Phases  of  Child  Study 

Baldwin :  Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race :  Vol.  I, 
Methods  and  Processes  :  Vol.  IL  Social  and  Ethical  Interpreta- 
tions ;  Vol.  in.  Organic  Evolution  and  Development.  Mac- 
millan. 

Very  valuable  discussions  of  fundamental  principles  of  organic 
and  social  development,  but  somewhat  obscure  and  technical  in 
places. 
Oppenheim:   The  Development  of  the  Child,  pp.  296,  and  Mental 
Growth  and  Control,  pp.  296.     Macmillan. 

Both  books  are  interesting  and  valuable,  the  first  dealing 
more  with  the  physical  nature  is  directly  in  the  line  of  the 
author's  specialty,  medicine. 
Judd  :  Genetic  Psychology.     Appleton. 

A  very  clear  and  valuable  study  of  the  modification  produced 
in  mind  by  experience  and  habit. 
Compayre  :  Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child :  Part 
I,  Early  Infancy  ;  Part  II,  Later  Infancy.     Appleton. 
A  readable,  psychological  study  of  children. 


CHILD   STUDY   LITERATURE  XXl 

Drummond  :  The  Child,  His  Nature  and  Nurture.    J.  M.  Dent  &  Co., 
London. 
An  excellent  little  book. 
SuUy :  Studies  of  Childhood. 

Especially  valuable  for  its  numerous  illustrations  of  children's 
doings  and  sayings. 
Barnes :  Studies  in  Education  (Studies  in  Ed.),  Vols.  I  and  H,  each 
consisting  of  a  series  of  ten  pamphlets  describing  the  studies 
made  by  himself  and  assistants  in  England  and  America  of  the 
social  ideas  and  ideals  of  children.  The  Author,  Philadelphia. 
Chamberlain  :  The  Child.     W.  Scott,  London. 

A  valuable  summar\-  of  much  of  the  literature  of  child  study. 
Stableton :    Diarv'  of  a  Western  Schoolmaster.     Ainsworth  &  Co., 
Chicago. 

A  very  interesting  account  of  the  individual  development  of 
twenty  adolescent   boys   who   were   somewhat   exceptional   in 
their  characteristics. 
Adler  :  Moral  Instruction  of  Children.     Appleton. 

A  valuable  discussion  of  the  general  problem  of  moral  instruc- 
tion, with  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  teaching  of  various 
virtues. 
Hogan,  Louise  E. :  A  Study  of  a  Child.     Harpers. 

Not  intended  to  be  scientific  or  systematic  ;  simply  a  mother's 
record  of  the  first  eight  years  of  her  boy,  with  comments. 
Taylor  :  The  Child.     Appleton. 

Contains  elementary  truths  of  psychology,  child  study,  and 
pedagogy. 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

CHAPTER   I 

NATURE,   SCOPE,   AND    PROBLEMS   OF    CHILD    STUDY 

DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    CHILDREN    AND    ADULTS 

Physically  and  mentally,  children  differ  from  adults 
in  other  ways  besides  the  obvious  ones  of  size  and 
knowledge.  Physically  this  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  we  can  form  some  idea  of  the  age  of  a  person  rep 
resented  in  a  picture  or  statue  when  there  is  nothing 
to  show  the  scale  upon  which  it  was  made.  There 
must  therefore  be  peculiarities  of  form  and  proportion 
of  parts  at  different  ages  upon  which  we  base  our  judg- 
ments. Most  persons,  however,  who  have  not  had  their 
attention  called  to  the  matter,  are  unable  to  state  in  just 
what  ways  children  and  adults  differ.  Some  even  hesi- 
tate regarding  the  most  obvious  differences  in  relative 
size  of  head,  body,  and  limbs,  though  the  ratios  are 
approximately  as  follows  :  — 

Height  of  head  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant  .  .  .  2:1 

Length  of  body  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant  .  .  .  3:1 

Length  of  arm  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant  .  .  .  4:1 

Length  of  leg  of  adult  to  that  of  an  infant  .  .  .  5:1 

These  differences  in  proportion  of  parts  are  probably 
greater    than    exist   between    some   adult   animals   and 


2  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

adult  human  beings.  They  are  only  the  more  obvious 
of  the  many  differences  between  children  and  adults, 
in  proportion  of  parts,  size  of  vital  organs,  and  physio- 
logical processes  such  as  those  of  circulation,  respiration, 
and  digestion. 

Mentally,  every  one  recognizes  marked  differences 
between  the  mind  of  a  child  and  of  an  adult,  though 
when  questioned  as  to  the  exact  character  of  these 
differences,  most  persons  are  even  more  hazy  and  in- 
definite in  their  answers  than  they  are  regarding  bodily 
differences.  Those  who  have  given  the  subject  most 
attention,  however,  are  sure  that  the  mental  differences 
are  greater  than  the  ph3^sical,  though  they  are  less  easily 
stated  in  exact  terms. 

ORIGIN    OF    CHILD    STUDY 

These  truths  have  received  much  more  attention 
recently  than  in  former  times,  and  the  result  has  been 
increased  interest  in  child  life  in  the  home,  in  the 
school,  and  in  literature,  art,  and  science.  This  increas- 
ing interest  with  the  consequent  discovery  of  additional 
differences  between  children  and  adults  has  led  to  the 
attempt  to  determine  definitely  and  accurately  the  pecu- 
liarities of  childhood  at  various  stages,  and  thus  we 
have  the  beginning  of  a  new  science  —  the  science  of 
Paidology  or  Child  Study.  If  children  were  merely 
adults  in  miniature,  there  would  be  no  occasion  for 
such  a  science;  but  as  we  have  seen,  they  differ  radi- 
cally from  adults,  hence  a  science  of  child  study  has 
arisen,  quite  distinct  from  the  general  sciences  of  physi- 
ology and  psychology.  Such  a  study  is  necessary  to 
the  completion  of  the  circle  of  the  sciences,  and  it  is  also 


PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD   STUDY  3 

indispensable  as  a  basis  for  the  science  of  education 
and  the  art  of  teaching. 

PERIOD    COVERED    BY    CHILD    STUDY 

It  is  not  easy  to  say  when  a  boy  or  girl  becomes  a 
man  or  woman.  Even  in  law  there  is  variability;  for 
a  man  is  recognized  as  earlier  mature  or  competent  for 
certain  purposes  than  he  is  for  others,  e.g.  he  can  enter 
the  army  at  eighteen  and  vote  at  twenty-one,  but  can- 
not hold  the  office  of  President  till  he  is  thirty-five. 
Again,  the  law  recognizes  the  passing  of  the  norm.al 
adult  stage  by  providing  for  the  retirement  of  officers 
after  a  certain  age.  Old  age,  as  well  as  the  period 
before  m.aturity  is  reached,  m.ay  therefore  furnish  a 
separate  field  for  study. 

Child  study  is  properly  concerned  with  all  the  changes 
that  usually  take  place  in  human  beings  before  they 
reach  maturity.  Most  of  these  changes  occur  before 
the  age  of  twenty,  but  some  may  not  appear  until  ten 
or  fifteen  years  later. 

Roughly  speaking,  infancy  and  childhood  last  about 
a  dozen  years,  adolescence  or  the  transition  period 
about  a  dozen  years,  vigorous  maturity  about  three 
dozen,  and  old  age  or  decadence,  one  dozen.  Some 
powers  mature  and  fail  earlier  and  others  later  than  at 
these  periods.  There  are  also  great  individual  differ- 
ences as  to  the  age  at  which  maturity  is  achieved,  and 
at  which  decadence  begins. 

SIGNIFICANCE    OF    INFANCY 

A  fish  has  practically  no  infancy ;  its  form  is  nearly 
that  of  the  adult ;  it  can  do  almost  everything  the  adult 


4  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

fish  can  do,  and  it  is  possible  to  teach  it  little  or  nothing. 
A  robin  is  helpless  at  birth,  yet  practically  mature  at 
two  months.  A  chicken  does  not  need  to  learn  to  walk 
and  take  food,  is  independent  in  a  few  weeks,  and  com- 
pletely mature  before  a  year,  though  retaining  con- 
siderable capacity  for  learning.  The  child  is  helpless 
for  months,  dependent  for  years,  immature  at  least  a 
score  of  years,  and  capable  of  learning  for  three  score. 
In  general,  the  animals  that  are  most  helpless  in  infancy 
have  the  longest  period  of  immaturity,  and  keep  long- 
est their  plasticity  or  power  of  learning,  are  more 
complex,  more  capable  of  variety  of  sensation  and 
movem.ent,  and  more  intelligent.  In  other  words,  the 
longer  the  infancy  of  any  species  of  animals,  the  greater 
its  ultim.ate  power  and  intelligence. 

WHY  HIGHER  ANIMALS  HAVE  A  LONGER  INFANCY  THAN 
THE  LOWER 

Looking  upon  an  animal  organism  as  a  machine, 
the  lower  animals  are  more  perfect  at  birth  than  the 
higher.  They  are  like  a  complex  "  nickle-in-the-slot " 
machine,  which  responds  in  an  appropriate  way  not  only 
to  one,  but  to  several  coins  (stimuli).  The  fish  has  an 
almost  unchanging  environment  and  needs  to  do  only  a 
few  things  in  order  to  secure  food  and  avoid  enemies ; 
hence  its  mechanism  from  the  first  prepares  it  for  most 
of  the  exigencies  of  life,  and  it  need  not  and  cannot 
learn  much.  It  is  sent  out  of  nature's  factory  all  ready 
to  do  the  limited  business  of  life  necessary  for  its  own 
preservation.  Higher  animals  come  into  a  much  more 
complex  environment,  each  phase  of  which  requires  a 
different  response;  hence  infinite  complexity  of  struc- 


PROBLEMS  OF   CHILD   STUDY  5 

ture  is  necessary  for  them  to  transact  their  life  business 
successfully. 

Moreover,  the  environment  varies  according  to  the 
place  in  which  the  young  animal  is  born,  the  season  of 
the  year,  and  its  own  movements ;  hence  it  is  nearly  as 
impossible  to  prepare  a  higher  animal  by  its  original 
structure  for  a  successful  life  as  it  would  be  to  prepare 
a  machine  that  would,  from  a  single  adjustment,  per- 
form with  accuracy  and  despatch  all  the  functions  of  a 
clerk  (including  the  answering  of  customers'  questions). 

A  machine  may  be  constructed  that  will  do  part  of 
the  work  of  a  clerk,  but  not  all,  for  new  situations  arise 
which  cannot  be  provided  for  by  any  fixed  mechanism. 
This  is  especially  true  when  he  changes  from  one  de- 
partment to  another,  or  one  kind  of  business  to  another, 
or  adopts  new  and  improved  methods.  la  a^^similar 
way  the  higher  animals,  in  order  to  do  their  Hfe  work 
and  live,  must  have  the  power  of  adjusting  themselves 
to  the  environment  into  which  ,t]aey.j.i*e_llQrn,  and  of 
adapting  themselves  to  changes  in  that  environment. 
To  do  the  first,  they  must  be  incomplete  at  birth  and 
capable  of  being  modified  by  experience  till  they  fit  their 
environment ;  and  to  do  the  second  they  must  retain 
something  of  their  plasticity  or  capacity  for  being  modi- 
fied, so  that  if  the  environment  changes  they  can  again 
make  the  necessary  adjustment  to  the  new  situations. 

Infancy  is  therefore  the  period  during  which  the 
more  complex  organisms  are  perfected  by  further  in- 
ternal development  and  by  activities  which  prepare 
them  to  react  appropriately  to  the  various  phases  of 
their  environment.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  period  for 
developing  the  native  powers  of  the  individual  and  for 


6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

learning  how  to  live  in  the  environment  in  which  he 
finds  himself. 

HUMAN    INFANCY    AND    PLASTICITY 

Man  is  the  most  complex  of  animals  and  also  the 
most  capable  of  preserving  himself  in  diverse  cli- 
mates and  conditions  of  life ;  hence  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing to  learn  that  he  is  born  with  the  greatest  capacity 
for  being  modified  to  suit  his  environment.  He  is  less 
mature,  has  fewer  fixed  modes  of  reaction  to  stimuli 
than    other    animals,    and    the    period    of    his    imma- 

t'  turity  lasts  from  five  to   a  hundred   times  as  long  as 
in  others  of  the  higher  animals.      Clearly,   therefore, 
infancy  is  of  vast  significance  in  a  human  being,  and 
a  man's  characteristics  at  various  ages  are  more  largely 
due  to  modifications..produced  by  his  own  and  less  to 
race  experiences  than  is  the  case  \yith  any  other  animal. 
Man  has  more  instincts  than  any  other  animal,  but  his 
instincts  are  all  subject  to  greater  modification  by  ex- 
perience.     Plasticity  is  not  only  greaJ;ex...in   man,  but 
greatest  in  early  life.     The  more  fundamental  physical 
characteristics  of  a  man  are  fixed  at  twenty-five,  and  the 
mental  at  thirty-five ;  yet  plasticity  in  minor  details  is 
/   retained  till  the  period  of  decadence. 
I   j     Not  only  is  the  period  of  infancy  longer  in  man  than 
^  /  in  animals,  but  it  is  longer  in  civilized  than  in  savage 
/   people,  and  is  constantly  becoming  longer.     As  life  be- 
'     comes  more  complex,  more  special  training  is  needed 
before  a  young  man  is  prepared  to  make  a  living  for 
himself.     The  age  of  entering  upon  business  and  pro- 
fessional  life  is  therefore  from  five  to  ten  years  later 
than  it  was  fifty  years  ago. 


•r^ 


PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD   STUDY  7 

Not  only  is  the  period  of  infancy  or  preparation  for 
living  longer,  but  there  is  more  need  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  plasticity  in  every  individual  as  long  as  possible ; 
for  the  environment  is  constantly  changing  with  the 
invention  of  new  machinery  and  methods,  and  advance- 
ment in  knowledge  and  social  relations.  Men  who 
have  not  sufficient  plasticity  to  adapt  themselves  to 
these  changes  quickly  fail  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 
The  function  of  education  in  a  pro^e^sive  nation  is 
therefore  not  merely  to  develop  habits  suited  to  present 
conditions  of  life,  but  also  to  develop  adaptability  that 

/will  enable  the  individual  to  fit  himself  to  new  conditions 
as  they  appear. 
.    In  the  evolution  of  the  race  a  long  period  ofjiifancy 
,nas  been  of  great  significance.    The  helplessness  of  chil- 

jdren  kept  parents  together,  and  thus  family  life,  which  is 
the  basis  of  all  social  life,  had  its  beginning.  Moreover, 
the  task  of  caring  for  and  training  children  gives  an 
education  that  could  be  achieved  in  no  other  way,  and 
contact  with  such  enigmatic  and  variable  creatures  re- 
news the  youth  of  adults  and  helps  them  to  preserve 
their  plasticity.  Not  only  does  man's  superiority  to 
animals  depend  largely  upon  his  longer  infancy,  or,  in 
other  words,  upon  his  greater  plasticity,  but  the  position 

\  of  each  nation  as  a  civilized  power  and  of  each  indi- 

jvidual  in  society  is  also  largely  determined  by  ability  to 

i respond  to  new  situations  in  new  ways. 

INNER    AND    OUTER    FACTORS    IN    DEVELOPMENT 

We  never  know  the  nature  of  a  material  object  until 
we  bring  it  in  contact  with  other  substances  and  with 
new  forces.      In  a  similar  way,  we   do  not   know  the 


8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

nature  of  a  child  until  we  have  observed  his  actions 
under  various  conditions.  Not  only  do  we  not  know 
what  the  child  is  until  we  have  observed  his  actions 
under  various  circumstances,  but  he  actually  acquires 
new  characteristics  in  the  presence  of  each  new  person 
and  in  the  performance  of  each  new  action. 

What  a  child  is,  therefore,  at  any  given  time,  is 
developed  from  what  he  was  at  the  beginning,  and 
what  he  has  acquired  by  his  reactions.  What  he  may 
be  is  potentially  present  at  first,  and  can  become  actual 
only  after  certain  phases  of  his  nature  have  been  de- 
veloped by  experience.  A  grain  of  corn  has  the  poten- 
tial power  of  producing  other  grains  of  corn,  but  it 
cannot  actually  do  so  until  it  has  been  subjected  to  heat 
and  moisture,  and  has  developed  leaves,  stalk,  tassel, 
and  silk.  In  a  similar  way  the  child  has  various  powers 
that  cannot  become  actual  until  environment  has  devel- 
oped certain  others.  No  conceivable  environment  can 
'make  corn  develop  characteristics  of  the  oak,  or  make 
'it  produce  grain  before  it  produces  leaves.  So  the  child 
must  become  a  human  being,  develop  in  a  certain  way ; 
each  instinct,  just  as  truly  as  the  beard,  has  a  definite 
time  for  development. 

Since,  however,  man  is  the  most  plastic  of  all  beings, 
the  order  of  his  development  is  subject  to  great  modi- 
fication. This  is  especially  true  of  his  mind.  Unlike 
other  machines,  the  brain  is  always  in  process  of  con- 
struction, always  being  modified  and  never  completed. 
A  machine  may  be  used  for  threshing  oats  for  several 
years,  then  it  can  be  used  with  equal  success  for  thresh- 
ing wheat;  but  a  brain  used  in  the  botanical  classification 
of  plants  must  be  changed  by  practice  before  it  is  cor- 


PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD   STUDY  9 

respondingly  useful  in  the  grammatical  classification  of 
words.  Every  time  the  mind  does  a  thing  it  becomes  a 
j  different  mind ;  hence  the  factors  of  nature  and  nurture 
I  are  almost  inextricably  mingled  in  psychical  develop- 
ment, and  this  makes  the  natural  order  of  development 
exceedingly  difficult  to  determine. 

The  question  is  often  asked  whether  certain  character- 
j  istics  are  native  or  acquired.  The  answer  might  be  in 
'nearly  every  case,  "They   are   both."     Native  powers 

/may  lie  dormant  unless  awakened  and  stimulated  to 
activity  by  environment.  On  the  other  hand,  nothing 
wholly  foreign  to  one's  nature  can  be  acquired  and 
made  a  permanent  part  of  one's  self.  The  relation  of 
outer  and  inner  factors  in  development  is  well  illustrated 
by  experiments  on  the  optic  nerve.  The  acquisition  of 
a  medullary  sheath  is  supposed  to  mark  the  beginning 
of  functional  activity  in  nerve  fibres.  Does  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  sheath  make  functional  activity  possible,  or 
does  the  beginning  of  function  cause  the  sheath  to 
develop  ?  Some  kittens  of  the  same  litter  were  kept 
blinded  so  the  optic  nerves  were  not  acted  upon  by 
light,  while  the  eyes  of  the  others  were  opened  and  thus 
early  subjected  to  the  influence  of  light.  At  varying 
intervals  the  kittens  were  killed  and  their  optic  nerves 
examined.  It  was  found  that  those  which  were  kept 
bHnded  acquired  their  medullary  sheaths  without  the 
stimulus  of  Hght,  but  much  less  quickly  than  the  others. 
In  this  case  the  inner  tendency  was  finally  effective, 
even  when  the  outer  stimulus  was  cut  off.  In  many 
other  cases,  however,  where  the  inner  tendency  is  less 
strong,  outer  influences  are  probably  necessary  in  order 
that  the  inner  possibility  may  become  an  actuality.     All 


^ 


lO  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

acquisitions,  therefore,  have  for  their  roots  inner  ten- 
f  dencies,  and  all  inner  tendencies  remain  undeveloped 
)    or  develop  slowly  without  the  action  of  favorable  outer 

influences.  Jj-iy^"*^-' 

THE   PROBLEM  TO  BE   SOLVED     ^  J,^^^^-' 

To  Study  the  outer  and  inner  factors  in  human  devel- 
opment, and  to  determine  how  the  inner  factors  are 
modified  by  the  outer,  is  the  work  of  child  study.  It 
must  discover  the  natural  order  of  physical  and  mental 
development  and  the  modifying  effect  of  various  con- 
ditions and  activities  at  different  stages.  It  must  find 
what  characteristics  are,  or  tend  to  be,  the  most  promi- 
nent at  each  age  by  determining  the  time  of  emergence 
and  greatest  prominence  of  each  of  the  numerous 
instincts. 

In  order  to  eliminate  the  influence  of  environment, 
the  test  of  generality  must  be  applied  and  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  instincts  given  form  and  intensity  by 
special  conditions  are  not  confused  with  more  funda- 
mental or  normal  instinctive  tendencies.  For  example, 
if  all  the  children  of  about  four  years,  in  a  village  by 
the  seashore,  play  at  making  and  sailing  boats,  the  in- 
ference may  be  drawn  that  there  is  a  natural  tendency 
to  engage  in  those  occupations  at  that  age.  Further 
observations  show  that  in  other  localities  the  play  occu- 
pations of  the  children  are  in  all  cases  characteristic  of 
the  neighborhood.  Everywhere  children  of  four  years 
I  imitate,  but  what  they  imitate  varies  with  their  sur- 
I  roundings ;  hence  the  correct  generalization  is  that  the 
tendency  to  imitate  is  strong  at  four  years,  because  of 
inner  laws  of  development,  but  that  the  particular  form 
of  imitation  is  determined  by  surroundings. 


PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD  STUDY  II 

In  Other  lines  of  child  study  the  problem  is  similar. 

In  every  case  we  ask  what  inner  tendencies  are  prominent 
i  at  each  age,  and  how  these  tendencies  are  developed  and 
'  modified  by  outer  influences.     Child  study  is,  therefore, 

concerned  with  all  the  characteristics  that  are  present 
/  at  birth  in  so  far  as  they  differ  from  those  of  adults, 
,  and  with  the  general  laws  of  development,  according  to 

which  changes  in  size,  structure,  and  instinct  take  place 
1  between  early  infancy  and  complete  maturity. 

GENERALITY  OF  INNER  FORCES  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

The  inner  forces  which  determine  the  form,  structure, 
and  actions  of  each  individual  and  the  changes  he  shall 
undergo  in  reaching  the  adult  stage  are  of  three  degrees 
of  generaUty  :  ( i )  those  determining  what  is  character- 
/  istic  of  all  animals  of  the  species  ;  (2)  those  determining 
what  is  common  only  in  a  certain  family  or  group  of 
families,  and  (3)  those  producing  the  distinctive  pecu- 
liarities of  the  individual.  The  first  is  the  result  of  the 
whole  history  of  the  species  and  its  ancestors  in  certain 
environment  or  environments ;  the  second,  of  a  portion 
only  of  the  species  and  in  a  more  Hmited  environment ; 
while  the  third  is  the  result  of  the  union  of  slightly 
unUke  parents  and  of  influences  acting  upon  the  indi- 
vidual organism  during  the  embryonic  period.  Bis- 
marck had  the  common  characteristics  of  all  human 
beings,  he  had  also  the  characteristics  prominent  in 
Germans,  and  the  individual  peculiarities  that  made  him 
Bismarck,  rather  than  any  other  German. 

The  science  of  child  study  is  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  characteristic  tendencies  manifested  by  all  children; 
yet  it  throws  light  on  the  more  speciaiidaaxacteri.stics  of 


12  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

nations  and  individuals  in  certain  environments.  The 
educator  needs  to  know  what  is  usually  true  of  children 
at  each  age  in  order  that  he  may  find  the  activity  best 
suited  to  that  age.  The  teacher,  hov/ever,  needs  to  be 
familiar  not  only  with  the  characteristics  common  to 
most  children  of  the  age  she  has  in  charge,  but  also 
with  their  national  and  individual  pecuHarities. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  State  physical  differences  between  children  and  adults  that  you 
have  noted  or  are  able  to  discover. 

2.  State  mental  differences  between  children  at  different  ages. 

3.  Mention  various  standards  of  maturity  for  men  and  women 
recognized  by  society  as  fitting  for  certain  purposes. 

4.  Tell  what  you  have  observed  regarding  the  young  of  animals 
as  to  helplessness  and  length  of  infancy. 

5.  Mention  instances  where  men  have  succeeded  because  of 
plasticity  where  others  failed.  Is  plasticity  needed  more  or  less  in 
children  than  in  animals?     Why? 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  children  showing  different  characteristics 
in  new  surroundings  and  to  different  persons. 

7.  Can  you  tell  what  characteristics  are  common  at  a  certain  age 
by  studying  children  of  one  locality  and  nationality  only?  Why? 
Illustrate. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  physical  differences  between  children  and  adults,  see  Oppenheim, 
chaps,  ii  and  iii. 

On  the  new  science  of  child  study,  see  Hall,  Forum,  Vol,  XVI,  pp. 
429-441  :  Chrisman,  Forum,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  728-736;  Ed.  Rev., 
Vol.  XV,  pp.  269-284;  0"Shea,/r.  Fed,  Vol.  XI.  pp.  9-25,  and 
Scripture,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  236-239. 

On  old  age,  see  Scott,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  67-84. 

On  the  stages  of  development,  see  Chamberlain,  chap,  iv,  and  San- 
ford,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  426-449. 


PROBLEMS   OF   CHILD   STUDY  1 3 

On   infancy  of  animals,  iMills,  Aiiimal  Intelligence,  Part    IIL  and 

Spaulding.  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  126-141  (reprinted)  : 

Thorndike.  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  282-291. 
On  meanino;  of  infancy,  see  Fiske,  Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist. 

chap,  xii ;  Destiny  of  Man.  chaps,  iv  and  vi ;  Butler,  Ed.  Rev.. 

Vol.   XIII,   pp.   58-75.  or  Meaning  of  Education,  pp.  3-34: 

Christopher,  Trans.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  II,  No.  2,  pp.  109-1 14  ; 

Chamberlain,  chap,  i :    Pycroft,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo..  Vol.  LXI  I,  pp. 

108-116. 
On  instincts  and  education,  see  Balliet,  Physical  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol. 

VIII,  pp.  1-7. 


CHAPTER   II 

PHYSICAL  GROWTH    AND    DEVELOPMENT 
GENERAL    PHENOMENA    OF    GROWTH 

If  we  were  introduced  into  a  factory  where  little 
machines  were  taking  into  and  making  part  of  them- 
selves, wood,  iron,  and  other  manufacturing  materials, 
and  thus  gradually  becoming  large  machines,  each  of 
its  own  kind  {e.g.  locomotives,  sewing  machines),  and 
that  without  stopping  a  cog,  crank,  or  wheel  during 
the  enlargement,  we  should  be  astonished  beyond  meas- 
ure. Yet  this  is  what  organic  machines  (plants  and 
animals)  are  doing  in  nature's  factory  all  around  us. 
Milk,  grass,  and  grain  are  transformed  into  horses, 
cows,  chickens,  and  children,  with  the  proper  character- 
istics of  each  ;  and  all  the  time  bones,  muscles,  and  blood 
vessels  are  enlarging  without  a  pause  in  the  working 
of  the  organism.  Only  familiarity  prevents  us  from 
continual  wonder  at  this  miracle,  repeated  in  a  thousand 
different  forms  each  year. 

Every  organism  begins  as  a  single  cell,  and  by  taking 
'in  and  transforming  nourishment,  it  grows  into  an  indi- 
vidual of  its  species.  All  increase  in  size  is  the  result 
of  two  processes:  (i)  increase  in  number  of  cells  by 
division,  and  (2)  enlargement  of  the  cells  thus  formed. 
Growth  during  the  embryonic  period  is  due  mainly  to 
the  first  cause,  and  after  birth  to  the  second.     The  body 

15 


1 6  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

of  a  child  is  composed  of  about  as  many  cells  as  that 
of  an  adult ;  hence  his  growth  is  principally  by  the 
enlargement  of  cells. 

The  importance  of  inner  tendencies  is  well  illustrated 
in  physical  growth  and  development.  The  law  of  motion, 
that  a  body  once  set  in  motion  continues  to  move  forever 
and  at  the  same  rate  unless  acted  upon  by  some  other 
force,  does  not  apply  to  growth.  An  organism  does 
not  grow  forever  when  once  started,  nor  is  the  rate  of 
growth  uniform,  but  it  grows  at  a  varying  rate  till  the 
size  of  its  species  is  attained,  then  it  stops.  It  is  not 
even  possible  to  change,  except  within  narrow  limits, 
the  rate,  amount,  or  direction  of  growth,  by  changes  in 
food  and  surroundings.  Evidently  each  species  is  so 
organized  that  it  grows  about  so  much  during  a  certain 
time,  and  lives  about  so  long.  That  size  is  determined 
largely  by  the  number  of  elements  in  the  germ  cell  is 
indicated  by  recent  experiments  upon  the  embryos  of 
lower  animals.  It  has  been  found,  for  example,  that  if 
the  embryo  of  a  frog  is  divided  into  two  or  four  parts, 
each  part  will  develop  into  a  whole  frog,  but  of  a  cor- 
respondingly fractional  size  and  length  of  life. 

GENERAL    TRUTHS    REGARDING    GROWTH    OF    CHILDREN 

,  The  most  rapid  growth  is  before  birth,  for  the  infant 
at  birth  is  five  million  times  as  large  as  the  original 
germ  cell.  After  birth  the  most  rapid  growth  is  during 
the  first  year,  when  it  is  nearly  threefold  From  this 
time  on  increase  in  size  is  less  rapid,  and  in  general  the 
rate  slightly  decreases  till  about  the  eleventh  year,  when 
there  is  an  acceleration  in  growth,  first  in  height,  then 
in  weight.     The  acceleration  in  growth  begins  earlier 


PHYSICAL   GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT  1 7 

in  girls,  but  lasts  longer  in  boys.  In  both,  the  stage  of 
rapid  growth  at  puberty  is  preceded  and  followed  by  a 
period  of  slow  growth,  and  again  in  both,  rapid  growth 
in  height  precedes  rapid  growth  in  weight.  Since  girls 
begin  growing  rapidly  while  boys  are  in  the  stage  of 
slow  growth,  girls  are  for  a  year  or  two  taller  and 
heavier  than  boys.  The  age  at  which  this  occurs  in 
girls  is  about  twelve  years,  but  varies  a  year  or  two  in 
different  countries.  Growth  is  usually  complete  before 
twenty,  at  least  as  regards  height. 

Measurements  of  individual  children  show  that  in 
general  a  period  of  rapid  growth  in  height  or  in  length 
of  limb  is  a  period  of  slow  growth  in  diameter,  and, 
conversely,  rapid  growth  in  diameter  occurs  at  the  time 
of  retarded  growth  in  length. 

FACTORS    DETERMINING    GROWTH 

The  truths  regarding  growth  stated  in  the  preceding 
topic  apply  not  merely  to  the  people  of  one  race,  or  to 
those  with  the  same  habits  of  exercise  and  eating,  but 
to  all  peoples  from  which  statistics  have  been  obtained ; 
hence  these  variations  in  growth  must  be  the  result  of, 
or  are  due  to,  inner  tendencies  common  to  all  of  the 
human  species.  Heredity  is  another  less  universal 
inner  tendency  determining,  growth,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  people  of  certain  nations  mature  earher  or 
attain  a  greater  size  than  those  of  others.  There  are 
also  tendencies  to  certain  accelerations  of  growth  that 
are  peculiar  to  individuals;  for  not  all  children,  even  of 
the  same  family,  grow  at  the  same  rate  at  the  same  age. 
Neither  do  they  all  attain  the  same  size  when  outer 
influences   are  the   same.      The   amount   and   rate   of 


1 8  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

growth  of   every  child   is   thus  largely  determined   by 
inner  tendencies. 

Outer  influences,  however,  such  as  climate,  exercise, 
and  nutrition  may  modify  rate  and  amount  of  growth. 

Climate,  especially  temperature,  may  be  a  factor  in 
growth,  in  as  much  as  seasonal  variations  are  marked  ;  in- 
crease in  the  height  of  children  is  greatest  in  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  while  increase  in  weight  is  greatest 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter.  This  may  be  interpreted  as 
the  result  of  an  inner  tendency  to  rhythmic  seasonal 
growth,  or  to  the  effects  of  variation  in  temperature. 
People  in  warm  countries  mature  more  quickly,  but  do 
not  reach  a  greater  size  than  those  in  cold  countries, 
hence  we  may  infer  that  heat  does  not  increase  the 
ultimate  size  of  human  beings.  People  of  the  Arctics 
and  the  Tropics  are  as  a  rule  not  large,  hence  a  tem- 
perate cHmate  is  probably  more  favorable  to  the  great- 
est growth. 

Exercise  may  modify  amount  and  rate  of  growth  to 
some  extent,  but  its  greatest  effect  is  probably  in  the 
substitution  of  muscular  for  fatty  tissue  in  certain  parts, 
without  much  change  in  ultimate  size.  The  fact  re- 
cently noted  that  children  engaged  in  manual  training 
during  the  summer  showed  less  than  the  usual  varia- 
tion in  growth,  with  change  of  season,  suggests  that 
seasonal  variations  in  growth  may  be  due  to  change  in 
occupation  as  much  as  to  change  in  temperature. 

The  fact  that  children  of  the  well-to-do,  and  presum- 
ably better  fed  classes,  are  larger  than  those  of  the 
less  favored  class,  seems  to  indicate  that  nutrition  is 
another  important  factor  in  growth.  In  England  this 
might  be  partially  explained  by  heredity,   but  not   in 


PHYSICAL   GRO\VTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT  1 9 

this  country.  The  fact,  however,  that  the  rate  of 
growth  of  children  in  both  this  country  and  in  England 
is  less  in  the  well-to-do  classes  during  school  life  from 
the  ages  of  six  to  eighteen  than  it  is  in  the  poorer 
classes,  shows  that  the  effects  of  good  or  poor  nutri- 
tion must  be  limited  to  the  period  preceding  the  school 
age.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  poor  nutrition  has 
the  greatest  effect  during  the  embryonic  period  and  the 
first  year  or  two  of  life  when  growth  is  rapid  ;  hence, 
though  both  infants  and  adults  of  the  poorer  classes 
are  smaller  than  of  the  more  favored  classes,  yet  the 
amount  of  growth  from  six  to  eighteen  is  greater  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter. 

A  temporary  condition  Hke  sichiess  nearly  always 
retards  growth ;  but  if  recovery  is  complete,  there  is 
usually  a  period  of  rapid  growth  in  which  the  time 
lost  is  made  up  ;  hence,  though  the  time  of  growth  may 
thus  be  modified,  the  total  growth  is  probably  affected 
only  by  prolonged  illness  or  other  unfavorable  conditions. 

GROWTH    OF   PARTS 

The  facts  previously  mentioned  as  to  the  difference  in 
the  relative  size  of  parts  in  children  and  adults  are  only 
some  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  the  general  truth, 
each  part  iJicreases  in  size  accoi'ding  to  an  hiiter  law  of 
its  own.  Other  facts  equally  striking  are  as  follows : 
the  brain  increases  in  weight  about  four  times,  the 
heart  thirteen  times,  and  the  lungs  twenty  times.  The 
weight  of  the  brain  of  boys  at  birth  is  12.29  P^^  cent  of 
that  of  the  body,  while  at  twenty-five  years  it  is  only 
2.16  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  changes 
of  other  organs  are  :  heart,  from  .jG  per  cent  to  .46  per 


20  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

cent;  right  lung,  .94  per  cent  to  .JJ  per  cent;  liver,  4.6 
per  cent  to  2.Z  per  cent;  and  kidneys,  .75  per  cent  to 
.46  per  cent.  The  shape  of  the  organs  also  changes 
with  age.  For  example,  the  Eustachian  tube  is  not  only 
relatively  short  in  the  child,  but  it  is  absolutely  broader 
than  in  the  adult;  while  the  child's  stomach  is  much 
more  tubular  in  form  and  more  nearly  vertical  in  posi- 
tion than  the  adult's. 

The  law  governing  the  growth  of  each  part  must, 
however,  be  consistent  with  the  general  law  governing 
the  growth  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  otherwise  the  pro- 
portion of  parts  would  vary  to  such  an  extent  that 
organic  processes  would  be  disturbed,  and  life  and 
health  could  not  be  maintained.  Presumably  it  is 
advantageous  for  the  proportion  of  parts  to  vary  at 
different  ages  when  there  are  different  functions  to  be 
performed  and  when  the  physiological  processes  of 
respiration,  circulation,  and  digestion  are  undergoing 
change. 

HEALTH    AND    GROWTH 

Normal  growth  is  in  general  a  sign  of  good  health, 
while  very  rapid  or  very  slow  growth  is  usually  a  sign 
of  poor  health.  The  period  of  rapid  growth  at  the 
beginning  of  puberty  is  generally  a  critical  period  both 
physically  and  mentally. 

There  is  difference  of  opinion,  however,  as  to  the 
relation  of  growth  to  health  at  this  time.  It  is  held  by 
some  that  health  is  likely  to  be  interfered  with  by  this 
rapid  growth.  This  may  be  true  in  individual  cases  ;  but 
the  investigations  of  Hertel  and  others  show  that  there 
is  less  illness  among  boys  and  girls  during  the  period  of 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT  21 

rapid  growth  than  in  the  years  of  slow  growth  imme- 
diately preceding  and  following.  To  this  it  is  repUed 
that  though  there  is  not  actual  disease,  there  is  usually 
some  debiUty  that  with  a  little  overstrain  may  result  in 
illness  ;  hence  requirements,  especially  in  school,  should 
be  lessened  at  this  time  in  order  that  all  the  energy  may 
be  expended  in  growth.  The  facts,  however,  do  not 
support  this  view,  for  most  youths  are  more  energetic 
and  restless  at  this  than  at  any  other  time  (though  some 
individuals  are  sluggish  and  listless),  and  experiments 
prove  that  at  this  time  there  is  a  great  increase  of  mus- 
cular power  and  size  of  vital  organs,  especially  the 
lungs.  The  argument  that  ill  health  often  dates  from 
this  period  is  answered  by  the  fact  that  recovery  also 
often  takes  place  at  this  time  through  what  is  called  "  out- 
growing the  disease." 

There  is  no  ground,  therefore,  for  the  view  that  in 
general  either  physical  or  mental  work  should  be  dis- 
carded during  this  period,  though  such  is  undoubtedly 
advisable  in  individual  cases.  Moderately  rapid  growth 
is  always  an  accompaniment  of  health  and  vigor.  The 
only  difference  is  that  at  this  time  growth  is  normally 
more  rapid  than  at  other  times.  Abnormally  rapid 
growth  is  Ukely  to  be  accompanied  at  this  as  at  other 
ages  by  poor  health  and  imperfect  development. 

Why,  then,  is  the  period  of  rapid  growth  at  puberty  a 
critical  period  .''  Largely  because  health  depends  upon 
the  equilibrium  of  all  parts,  and  when  growth  is  rapid 
there  is  more  chance  for  unsymmetrical  development 
and  consequent  disturbance  of  equilibrium.  A  rapidly 
moving  bicycle  does  not  readily  lose  balance ;  but  if  it 
does,  the  results  are  disastrous,  and  the  same  is  true  of  a 


22  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

rapidly  growing  organism.  The  development  of  new 
functions  at  this  age  also  complicates  the  situation. 
Although  at  this  time  a  youth  can  often  do  more  work 
and  endure  more  hardships  than  at  any  other  time,  yet 
if  an  obstruction  is  not  overcome,  the  results  are  more 
serious  than  at  any  other  time.  The  rapid  growth  of  this 
period  calls  not  for  less  work  but  rather  for  more,  yet 
care  must  be  exercised  that  there  be  no  overstrain. 
At  this  time  is  needed  not  stimulation  or  repression  but 
direction,  in  order  that  development  may  correspond  to 
growth  and  be  of  a  desirable  kind. 

GROWTH   AND    DEVELOPMENT 

These  two  terms  are  often  used  interchangeably,  proba- 
bly because  the  processes  usually  take  place  together. 
Their  meaning  is,  however,  different,  and  there  is  often 
a  lack  of  correlation  between  the  processes. 

Growth,  properly  speaking,  refers  only  to  increase  in 
size  of  parts,  and  the  consequent  change  in  size  and 
shape  of  the  body  as  a  whole.  It  is  the  result  of  increase 
in  the  number  or  size  (or  both)  of  the  cells  composing 
the  body.  Development  more  properly^denotes  changes 
in  character  and  connection  of  cells.  If  an  infant  were 
to  grow  to  adult  size  without  any  corresponding  change 
in  cells,  he  would  be  utterly  incapable  of  sustaining  his 
weight,  with  his  cartilaginous  bones  and  flabby  mus- 
cles not  yet  connected  with  controlling  nerve  centres. 
It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  physicians  that  deficient  or 
improper  nutritive  conditions  often  affect  development 
more  than  they  do  growth.  A  child  may  be  quite  large 
for  his  age,  but  poorly  developed  because  of  lack  of  min- 
eral matter  in  the  bone  cells,  just  as  a  plant  in  a  dark 


PHYSICAL  GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT  23 

cellar  may  attain  great  size  but  be  utterly  lacking  in  the 
essential  qualities  of  a  healthy  plant. 

Arrest  or  acceleration  of  growth  and  development 
together  is  probably  less  serious  than  of  either  alone. 
When  they  take  place  together,  subsequent  growth  and 
development  are  not  necessarily  interfered  with.  Cells 
probably  tend  to  change  in  character  when  increasing 
in  size,  and  to  change  in  size  when  being  modified  in 
character.  Changes  of  one  kind  only  are  usually  extreme 
and  disturbing,  hence  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  : 
rapid  growth  should  be  accompanied  or  quickly  followed 
by  a  corresponding  change  in  development  in  order  that 
arrest  of  development  7nay  not  occur. 

After  the  inner  growth  tendencies  have  worked  them- 
selves out,  and  full  normal  size  is  attained,  there  is  still 
some  possibility  of  change  in  size  of  parts,  especially  of 
muscles.  Sickness  and  lack  of  exercise  decrease  their 
size,  while,  in  health,  exercise  increases  it.  Ordinary 
exercise  during  middle  life  maintains  the  size  of  mus- 
cles, while  in  old  age  the  muscles  are  decreased  rather 
than  increased  in  bulk  by  special  exercise.  The  old  man 
of  eighty  who  increased  the  size  of  his  calves  by  bicycle 
riding,  was  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  The  term 
"development"  is  sometimes  applied  to  special  increase 
in  size  of  parts,  produced  by  exercise,  but  the  word  even 
then  usually  implies  also  change  in  quality  of  the  part. 
A  muscle,  for  example,  when  exercised,  increases  in 
hardness  more  than  in  size. 

What  is  true  of  muscles  is  true  of  nerve  centres  to  a 
considerable  extent.  They  are  capable  of  less  growth 
through  exercise  than  muscles ;  but  they  have  greater 
capacity  for  development,  or,  in  other  words,  for  changes 


24  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

in  cells  and  in  connections  between  cells.  Growth  of 
the  brain  is  nearly  as  complete  at  six  as  is  growth  of 
muscle  at  three  times  that  age,  whereas  development 
of  nerve  cells  is  not  complete  at  twice  eighteen.  Growth 
of  the  brain  is  due  almost  wholly  to  growth  of  the  fibres 
connecting  cells  with  each  other,  and  this  is  an  impor- 
tant phase  of  development,  since  the  cells  are  thus 
brought  into  harmonious  relation.  The  increased  men- 
tal power  that  comes  with  age  and  training  is  the  result, 
'if  not  so  much  of  changes  in  individual  cells,  as  of  changes 
[  in  those  connections  between  cells  which  make  possible 
the  use  of  many  parts  of  the  brain  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  a  single  purpose. 

NATURAL  ORDER  OF  DEVELOPMENT  IN  RELATION  TO 
EXERCISE 

Whatever  may  be  true  of  the  effect  of  exercise  upon 
growth  as  a  whole,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that 
development  is  promoted  by  moderate  exercise  of  the 
whole  body.  This  is  true  during  both  the  growing  and 
the  mature  stage  of  life.  As  to  particular  parts  of  the 
body  we  know  that  changes  in  growth  and  development 
may  be  produced  by  prolonged  exercise  of  certain  parts. 
This  is  well  shown  in  the  various  types  of  athletes  with 
extraordinary  leg,  arm,  back,  or  chest  power. 

Again,  occupations  requiring  the  use  of  one  arm  or 
one  leg  only  may  produce  over-development  on  one  side. 
Such  excess  of  development  of  one  limb  over  the  other 
is,  however,  limited.  Experiments  show  that  when  the 
right  arm  is  used,  nervous  impulses  are  sent  to  other 
muscles  than  those  used,  and  also  to  the  corresponding 
muscles  of  the  left  arm.    Other  muscles  than  those  used 


PHYSICAL   GRO^^TH   AND   DEVELOPMEx\T  25 

of  the  right  arm,  and  also  the  muscles  of  the  left  arm, 
therefore  gain  in  size  and  strength  from  systematic 
exercise  of  certain  muscles  of  the  right  arm  only.  For 
this  reason  some  degree  of  symmetry  is  preserved  when 
the  exercise  is  largely  one-sided.  The  development  of 
internal  organs  is  also  affected  by  exercise  of  other 
organs ;  hence  the  dangers  of  over-specialization  are 
diminished  by  this  partial  diffusion  of  the  effects  of 
exercise.  Yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  destroy  bodily  sym- 
metry by  over-exercise  of  parts,  v/hile  equilibrium  of 
functions  of  different  parts  is  still  more  easily  disturbed, 
so  that  ill  health  and  death  are  not  infrequent  results  of 
extreme  speciaUzation  in  exercise,  e.g.  a  man  who  devel- 
oped his  muscles  so  that  he  could  lift  three  thousand 
pounds  died  from  nervous  exhaustion. 

The  effects  of  exercise  on  growth  and  development 
are  practically  the  same  for  nerve  cells  as  for  muscle 
cells,  except  that  the  changes  in  size  are  not  so  great  in 
ner\'e  cells.  Nerve  cells  not  exercised  because  of  loss 
of  a  limb  or  of  a  sense  at  an  early  age,  as  in  the  case  of 
Laura  Bridgman,  are  not  quite  as  large  as  other  cells 
and  much  less  developed,  i.e.  have  fewer  processes  ex- 
tending out  from  them. 

Muscular  ability  depends  not  so  much  upon  the 
degree  of  development  of  muscles  as  upon  the  harmo- 
nious working  of  all  the  muscles  concerned  in  a  move- 
ment. It  is  therefore  more  a  matter  of  nervous 
connections  than  of  muscular  strength.  This  is  per- 
haps best  illustrated  in  throwing  and  in  wrestling,  where 
victory  goes  not  to  the  strongest  but  to  the  one  whose 
muscles  work  together  to  the  best  advantage.  A  skilful 
thrower  uses  first  the  muscles  of  the  legs,  then  succes- 


26  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

sively  those  of  the  body,  shoulder,  arm,  forearm,  wrist, 
and  fingers,  and  the  ball,  shot,  or  hammer  leaves  the 
hand  with  a  force  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  forces  exerted 
by  these  muscles.  An  unskilled  thrower,  on  the  other 
hand,  uses  principally  the  muscles  of  shoulder  and  upper 
arm,  and  these  not  in  harmony ;  hence,  though  he  have 
the  arm  of  a  blacksmith,  he  may  be  beaten  by  a  strip- 
ling base-ball  pitcher. 

It  is  evident  that  special  exercise  of  parts  may  be  in- 
jurious because  it  over-develops  the  parts  exercised,  and 
hinders  rather  than  helps  in  the  harmonious  working  of 
part  with  part.  Extreme  specialization  is  therefore  to 
be  avoided  at  all  times. 

During  the  growing  period  when  plasticity  is  great- 
est, extreme  and  permanent  specialization  is  much  more 
readily  produced  than  in  adult  life  when  plasticity  is 
less  and  parts  are  already  normally  developed.  It 
may  even  be  questioned  whether,  in  growing  children, 
all  specialization  is  not  over-specialization.  Boys  who 
specialize  in  one  form  of  athletics  at  an  early  age  in  the 
secondary  schools  are  likely  to  fail  in  college  and  uni- 
versity contests. 

On  the  general  principle  that  development  should 
accompany  or  follow  growth,  it  is  probably  best  for  chil- 
dren to  have  more  exercise  of  one  part  at  one  time  and 
of  others  at  another ;  hence  the  tendency  often  noticed 
in  children  to  specialize  in  one  direction  for  a  while, 
then  in  another,  is  probably  a  good  thing.  Such  speciali- 
zation is  directed  by  pla}^  and  occupation  interests,  but 
is  probably  really  determined  largely  by  growth  and 
development  changes.  Such  specialization  is  usually 
temporary    and   in    accord   with   the    natural    order  of 


PHYSICAL   GROWTH    AND   DEVELOPMENT  2/ 

growth  and  development,  hence  it  is  not  injurious  or 
disturbing. 

If  we  knew  the  natural  order  in  which  the  nerve  and 
muscle  centres  grow  and  develop,  we  could  perhaps 
devise  physical  and  mental  exercises  that  would  be  most 
favorable  to  perfect  development  at  each  stage  of  life. 
In  the  absence  of  such  knowledge  any  attempt  at  special 
training  during  the  growing  period  may  interfere  with 
the  natural  order  of  development,  and  disturb  instead  of 
promote  harmony  of  function. 

In  all  schools  certain  physical  and  mental  activities 
are  performed  over  and  over  every  day  ;  hence  with 
reference  to  all  the  child's  powers  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  speciaHzation,  though  the  training  is  intended  to  be 
general  rather  than  special.  It  is  altogether  probable, 
therefore,  that  in  giving  children  the  training  they  will 
need  in  later  life,  at  a  time  when  they  are  in  an  earlier 
stage  of  development,  we  are  to  a  considerable  extent 
interfering  with  their  natural  order  of  development. 

(The  studies  of  Bryan,  Hancock,  and  others  have 
demonstrated  what  is  evident  to  every  close  observer, 
that,  in  general,  children  use  the  larger  muscle  groups 
earlier  than  those  concerned  in  finely  adjusted  move- 
ments. It  follows,  therefore,.thatjthe_large  number  of 
finely  adjusted  movements  req-uirediii_ making  small 
letters  accurately  at  an  early  age  must_result  in  a 
specialization  of  the  smaller  nerve  and  muscle  centres 
long  before  their  natural  time  of  development.  Poor 
writing  and  drawing,  which  nearly  always  appears  in 
iabout  the  sixth,  grade,  may  be  one  of  the  effects  of  lack 
J  bf  harmony  in  development,  produced  by  the  premature 
yor  excessive  training  of  the  finer  muscle  centres. 


28  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

In  the  more  purely  mental  sphere  there  is  general 
agreement  among  students  of  children  that  children 
form  crude,  indefinite  ideas  involving  only  a  few  of  the 
most  obvious  acts  of  analysis  and  synthesis.  These 
ideas  become  more  exact  and  definite  with  increased 
experience,  just  as  movements  become  more  accurate 
and  definite  with  practice. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  detailed 
analyses  and  exact  definitions  so  often  required  of  young 
children  are  opposed  to  the  natural  order  of  brain  de- 
velopment, and  therefore  destructive  of  interest  and  dis- 
turbing to  the  natural  processes  of  mental  growth. 

As  the  science  of  child. study  progresses,,  such  inter- 
ference with  the  natural  processes  of  physical  and 
mental  development  should  becomeLjess  and  less.  In 
the  meantime,  children  should  have  plenty  of  oppor- 
tunity to  get  an  all-round  physical  and  mental_develop- 
ment  from  their  plays  and  games,  as  a  corrective  of 
whatever  injurious  specialization  is  being  produced  in 
school. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Have  pupils  study  growth  tables  and  recall  their  observations, 
then  decide  whether  rapid  growth  in  individual  children  extends 
over  a  longer  or  a  shorter  period  than  that  indicated  in  the  tables, 
and  whether  growth  in  individuals  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  rapid 
than  is  shown  by  the  tables.  If  all  children  had  their  period  of 
rapid  growth  at  the  same  age,  could  the  period  of  rapid  growth  be 
shorter  in  individuals  than  in  the  table? 

2.  Have  pupils  mention  individuals  of  large  or  small  size,  and 
give  probable  cause. 

3.  From  observations  and  tables,  report  as  many  marked  changes 
in  size  or  shape  of  parts  with  age,  also  as  many  changes  in  physio- 
logical processes  as  possible. 


PliYSICAL   GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT  29 

4.  Give  illustrations  of  gi'owth  of  parts  due  to  special  exercise,  or 
lack  of  growth  due  to  want  of  exercise.  Why  do  insurance  com- 
panies ask  the  height  and  weight  of  those  they  insure? 

5.  Observe  how  very  young  children  throw,  and  how  they  make 
the  movements  of  scribbling  when  they  first  attempt  to  draw,  as 
bearing  on  the  question  of  what  muscle  centres  develop  first. 

Mention  specifically  school  exercises  that  require  too  much  fine 
muscular  adjustment.  Why  is  it  more  injurious  to  children  than  to 
adults  to  work  in  factories.'*  At  what  age  is  it  best  to  begin  giving 
special  training  only? 

6.  The  body  of  an  adult  is  58.5  per  cent  water,  that  of  an  infant 
74.7  per  cent,  and  of  a  foetus  94.5  per  cent,  while  the  amount  of 
animal  matter  in  the  bones  of  an  infant  is  2.24  per  cent,  and  in  an 
adult  7.29  per  cent.  What  do  these  facts  signify  as  regards  growth 
and  development?     Give  others. 

7.  May  awkwardness  and  growing  pains  be  explained  by  in- 
equality in  growth  of  parts,  as  of  bones  and  tendons,  and  by  want 
of  proper  relation  between  growth  and  development? 

Can  you  see  how  growth  changes  might  produce  changes  in  such 
habits  as  writing? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  growth,  read  Donaldson,  Growth  of  the  Brain ;  Porter,  Am. 
Phys.  Ed.  Re7'.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  155-173,  or  Trans.  Acad.  Set.,  St. 
Louis,  1893,  Vol.  VL  pp.  1 61-18 1  ;  Gilbert,  Vale  Studies,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  40-100  ;  Mrs.  W.  S.  Hall.  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  332-342  ; 
Christopher,  Reports  071  Child-Study  Investigations,  reprints 
from  the  reports  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education  for  1898- 
1899,  1899-1900,  1900-1901  :  Hastings,  Manual,  chaps,  iii  and 
iv,  or  A^.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  J076-1084,  and  Burke,  Growth  of 
Children  in  Height  and  Weight,  pp.  73.  reprinted  from  Avi.  Jr. 
Psych.,  Vol.  IX.  pp.  253-326.  and,  if  desired,  other  references 
given  by  Burke. 

On  growth  in  relation  to  health,  see  Key,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol. 
XXXVII,  p.  107;  Christopher,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  324- 
335;  /''•  Ch.  and  Ad.,  July,  1902,  pp.  190-199;  O'Shea, /r. 
Ped.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  299-316. 


30  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

On  diffusion  of  impulses  and  the  effects  of  exercise,  see  Davis,  Vale 
Studies^  Vol.  VI,  pp.  6-50,  or  Scietice  (N.  S.),  Vol.  X,  p.  20; 
Johnson,  Yale  Studies,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  51-103;  Scripture,  Yale 
Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  114-119. 

On  the  natural  order  of  development  in  relation  to  exercise,  see 
Burk,  Ped.  Son.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  5-64;  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  1067- 
1076;  Patrick,  Pop.  Set.  Mo..  Vol.  LIV,  pp.  382-391,  and 
Gulick,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LI  1 1,  pp.  793-805  ;  Bryan,  Am.  Jr. 
Pysch.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  125-204,  and  Hancock,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  9-29;  Sargent,  Physical  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  57-69; 
Gulick,  Physical  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  70-74. 

On  arrest  of  development,  see  Dawson,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI, 
pp.  188-197  ;  Harris,  Education,  \q\.  XX,  pp.  453-466. 


CHAPTER   III 

NATIVE  MOTOR  ACTIVITIES  AND  GENERAL   ORDER 
OF  DEVELOPMENT 

KINDS    OF    NATIVE    MOVEMENTS 

Man  can  make  machines  that  move  about  and  do 
various  kinds  of  work,  but  they  all  need  a  person  to 
start  and  direct  them.  Nature,  however,  makes  animal 
machines  that  move  around  and  do  various  things  with- 
out any  one  to  superintend  their  movements.  To  do 
this  safely,  they  must  be  self-running,  self-repairing, 
and  capable  of  moving  so  as  to  secure  food  and  avoid 
danger. 

The  movements  necessary  to  change  food  into  force 
and  keep  the  internal  machinery  in  running  order  are 
carried  on  almost  wholly  within  the  body,  and  are  there- 
fore called  automatic.  All  the  movements  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  lungs,  heart,  blood-vessels,  and  intestines 
concerned  in  the  processes  of  respiration,  circulation, 
and  digestion  are  of  this  continuous,  rhythmic,  and  self- 
perpetuating  character.  They  depend  mainly  upon  the 
relation  of  different  parts  of  the  organism  to  each  other, 
and  very  slightly  upon  the  i^^^ion  of  the  organism  to 
its  environment. 

The  movements  involved  in  securing  food  and 
escaping  danger,  on  the    other  hand,  are    partially    or 

32 


NATIVE   MOTOR  ACTIVITIES  33 

wholly  originated  by  contact  of  the  body  with  something 
in  the  surroundings.  In  other  words,  they  are  called 
forth  by  an  external  stimulus.  Some  are  simple  or 
reflex,  and  others  complex  or  instinctive. 

The  simple  or  reflex  movements  are,  as  a  rule,  the 
response  of  a  single  part  of  the  organism  to  a  simple 
stimulus  to  that  part.  Examples  are,  the  winking  of  the 
eye  when  the  lid  is  touched,  or  jerking  the  hand  away 
when  it  is  pricked.  Such  movements  occur  whenever 
the  appropriate  stimulus  is  given,  whatever  the  internal 
condition  of  the  animal.  The  mechanism  controlling 
them  is  very  accurate,  for  just  as  the  nickel-in-the-slot 
machine  will  not  respond  to  a  penny,  so  the  hand  will 
not  be  jerked  away  when  touched,  but  only  when 
injuriously  stimulated,  as  by  a  prick  or  burn.  All  parts 
of  the  body  are  thus  protected  by  reflex  movements. 

The  complex  or  instinctive  movements  are  a  response 
of  the  whole,  or  a  considerable  part  of  the  organism  to 
some  external  stimulus,  such  as  taking,  chewing,  and 
swallowing  food,  and  the  movements  of  avoiding  dan- 
ger by  hiding,  running,  or  fighting.  These  movements, 
though  initiated  by  an  appropriate  stimulus,  are  to  some 
extent  dependent  upon  internal  conditions  or  stimuli. 
An  infant  will  suck  whenever  his  lips  are  touched,  if 
there  is  also  the  internal  condition  or  stimulus  of  hunger, 
but  not  if  the  stomach  is  full  or  out  of  order  ;  and  a  hen 
will  sit  on  a  nest  if  she  is  in  a  broody  condition,  but 
not  otherwise.  Instinctive  movements  differ  from  reflex 
movements  also  in  the  fact  that  they  are  for  the  good  of 
the  whole  body  instead  of  for  some  one  part.  Winking 
the  eye  and  jerking  away  the  hand  protect  only  the  eye 
and  hand,  while  taking  food  benefits  not  the  mouth  but 


34  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

the  whole  body,  and  running  saves  not  merely   the  legs 
but  the  whole  animal  from  danger. 

Instinctive  movements,  such  as  sucking,  are  probably 
in  reality  nothing  but  a  combination  of  reflexes.  When 
the  tongue  and  Hps  of  an  infant  are  rendered  sensitive 
by  hunger,  contact  with  any  object  causes  them  to  close 
around  it  reflexively.  This  movement  affects  the  breath- 
ing reflex  and  causes  sucking  movements.  The  stimulus 
of  milk  on  the  tongue  and  the  throat  calls  forth  the  reflex 
movements  of  swallowing.  Loeb  has  thus  analyzed  a 
number  of  instincts  into  a  series  of  reflexes,  and  it  is 
probable  that  all  instincts  are  merely  a  combination  of 
reflexes  in  which  the  reaction  of  one  part  excites  others, 
with  the  result  that  the  animal  acts  as  a  whole  and  for 
the  good  of  the  whole. 

INSTINCTS    AND    STRUCTURE 

The  relation  of  instinct  to  intelligence  or  reason  has 
long  attracted  wondering  attention,  but  until  recently 
little  notice  was  taken  of  the  relation  of  physical  struc- 
ture to  instinct.  When  the  matter  is  once  suggested, 
however,  no  extended  observation  is  needed  to  show 
that  the  instincts  of  any  animal  correspond  to  its  struc- 
ture. Cats  do  not  try  to  fly  or  dive  when  chased  by 
dogs,  nor  ducks  to  chmb  trees  or  fight  with  their  claws. 
Turtles  do  not  attempt  to  run  from  danger,  or  rabbits 
to  curl  up  in  their  skins  for  protection.  The  peculiar 
structure  of  teeth  and  stomach  in  cows  goes  with  a 
strong  instinct  to  eat  grass,  and  in  the  Hon  with  an 
equally  strong  instinct  to  eat  meat. 

Even  in  the  life  of  the  same  animal  new  instincts 
develop  as  new    structures    are    formed    or    perfected. 


NATIVE   MOTOR   ACTIVITIES  35 

Birds  do  not  show  the  flying  instinct  until  their  wings 
develop,  nor  the  nesting  instinct  until  they  are  ready  to 
produce  young.  Before  their  teeth  and  claws  are  devel- 
oped, young  lions  run  from  large  animals  instead  of 
attacking  them. 

There  is  good  reason,  therefore,  for  believing  that 
every  instinct  of  each  species  of  animals  has  its  basis 
in  some  peculiarity  of  structure.  A  slight  difference  in 
beak,  claw,  or  wing  of  birds  often  makes  a  vast  differ- 
ence in  the  form  in  which  the  instinct  to  catch  food, 
sleep,  build  nests,  or  escape  danger,  sha.ll  be  manifested. 
A  bird  with  the  bill  of  a  humming-bird  and  the  instinct 
of  a  flycatcher,  or  one  with  the  instinct  of  a  woodpecker 
and  the  beak  of  a  grosbeak,  would  be  at  a  serious  disad- 
vantage in  securing  food. 

Sometimes  the  difference  in  the  actions  of  two  species 
of  anim.als  is  not  easily  accounted  for  by  observation  of 
external  differences  in  structure,  but  in  those  cases  a 
fuller  knowledge  of  the  internal  anatomy  of  the  animal, 
and  especially  of  the  nervous  system,  would  probably 
reveal  the  basis  of  the  difference.  Every  instinctive  act 
must  therefore  have  a  mechanism  appropriate  to  its 
performance,  and  in  young  animals  this  mechanism 
must  be  developed  before  the  instinct  appears. 

INSTINCTS    AND    CONSCIOUSNESS 

We  all  know  that  the  automatic  movements  are  car- 
ried on  without  consciousness.  The  apparatus  for  these 
movements  works  best  when  not  interfered  with  by  con- 
sciousness. A  little  attention  to  the  matter  will  also 
show  us  that  the  reflex  movements  of  the  eye  and  the 
withdrawal  of  the  hand  are  the  results  of   a  definite 


36  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

mechanism  which  works  without  being  started  by  con- 
sciousness. In  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  conscious- 
ness to  prevent  such  movements.  It  is  true  that  the  fact 
of  a  stimulus  being  received  and  responded  to  by  the 
hand  or  eyelid,  is  usually  reported  to  consciousness,  but 
that  is  after  rather  than  before  the  movement  begins. 

That  instinctive  movements  are  also  dependent  upon 
mechanism  rather  than  consciousness  is  not  always  so 
readily  admitted.  Yet  the  person  who  jumps  at  a  loud 
sound  or  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  frightful  object, 
often  says  he  cannot  help  it,  and  a  moment  after  the 
fright  may  laugh  at  his  own  foolishness.  When  a  cat 
races  after  a  ball  or  a  mouse,  he  does  not  think  he  wants 
it  before  trying  to  catch  it,  but  the  sight  of  the  moving 
object  sets  the  chasing  apparatus  in  motion  at  once.  In 
the  same  way  the  sight  of  a  hawk  excites  the  mech- 
anism for  making  danger  signals  in  the  hen,  and  this 
sound  causes  the  crouching  and  keeping-quiet  apparatus 
to  work  in  the  young  chicks.  Persons  and  animals  do 
not  have  to  learn  to  do  these  things  any  more  than  they 
have  to  learn  to  breathe,  and  when  performed  suddenly 
they  are  just  as  independent  of  consciousness. 

The  mechanical  character  of  reflex  and  instinctive  re- 
actions is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a  decapitated 
snake  will  coil  around  a  red-hot  iron  as  readily  as  around 
a  stick.  In  this,  as  in  other  cases,  there  is  evidently  a 
definite  mechanism  which  is  set  in  operation  by  a 
certain  stimulus  or  any  stimulus  sufificiently  like  it.  The 
dependence  of  instinctive  movements  upon  structure 
rather  than  consciousness  is  also  shown  with  remarkable 
clearness  by  Jennings's  experiments  upon  paramecia, 
one  of  the  simpler  forms  of  animal  life.     Their  great 


NATIVE   MOTOR   ACTIVITIES  37 

activity  in  moving  around,  taking  particles  of  food, 
gathering  in  companies,  approaching  COg  and  avoiding 
acids,  gives  the  impression  that  their  movements  are 
directed  by  consciousness,  and  that  they  exercise  choice. 
Careful  experiment  and  observation,  however,  show  that 
it  is  all  a  matter  of  mechanism.  Their  cilia  are  in 
almost  continual  motion,  and  thus  their  bodies  are  driven 
forward.  If  they  approach  acid,  the  cilia  reverse,  and 
thus  they  back  off  from  that  injurious  substance.  If, 
however,  the  acid  is  made  to  approach  them  from  behind, 
the  effect  is  the  same  upon  the  cilia,  and  instead  of 
moving  away  from  the  fatal  substance  they  enter  it. 
CO2  has  the  opposite  effect  upon  the  cilia,  consequently 
when  moving  forv/ard  they  enter  and  remain  in  drops  of 
that.  Choice  of  food  is  also  lacking,  for  they  take  in 
every  small  particle  they  touch,  whether  it  has  food 
value  or  not.  Careful  observation  thus  shows  that  all 
their  actions  are  purely  mechanical. 

Loeb  has  in  a  similar  way  analyzed  the  instincts  of 
a  number  of  animals  into  mechanical  reflexes.  For 
example,  the  apparatus  for  stinging  is  in  the  last  seg- 
ment of  the  abdomen  of  a  bee,  since  when  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  body  the  usual  movement  of  sting- 
ing is  made  when  the  under  side  is  touched. 

Fixed  instincts,  like  habits  in  man,  work  almost 
mechanically.  Not  only  does  j:ans,dausiie.ss_-nQt  direct 
the  activity,  but  so  long  as  everything  goes  smoothly, 
there  is  little  or  no  consciousness.  Where  acts  are  to  be 
repeated  over  and  over,  and  the  same  kind  of  movement 
made  in  response  to  the  same  stimulus,  consciousness  is 
unnecessary.  It  is  only  when  several  modes  of  response 
are    possible   that   consciousness  is  of   any  use.     Con- 


38  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

sciousness  can  then  distinguish  the  different  possibilities 
and  choose  the  one  that  past  experience  has  shown  will 
give  the  most  desirable  results.  When  a  new  animal  is 
seen  by  another,  the  possibilities  of  friendly  advance,  of 
hasty  retreat,  or  of  vigorous  pursuit  are  suggested,  and 
consciousness  decides  in  the  light  of  past  experience 
with  similar  animals  which  form  of  reaction  shall  be 
made.  If,  however,  the  animal  that  appears  is  a 
hereditary  enemy,  the  action  of  fleeing  is  mechanically 
performed  with  very  little  consciousness,  unless  flight  is 
in  some  way  impeded,  when  other  possibilities,  such  as 
fighting,  hiding,  or  feigning  death,  are  suggested. 

An  animal  that  had  only  one  possibility  of  response 
in  a  given  situation  could  make  no  use  of  consciousness. 
Only  those  animals  that  are  sufficiently  complex  to  have 
more  than  one  m.ode  of  response  to  a  given  stimulus 
can  profit  by  conscious  intelligence.  It  is  reasonable, 
therefore,  to  suppose  that  instead  of  consciousness  mak- 
ing new  movements  possible,  the  acquisition  of  new 
possibilities  of  movement  m.akes  conscious  intelligence 
possible  and  useful,  especially  in  animals  and  children. 
With  much  truth,  therefore,  we  may  say  that  man  makes 
many  movements,  not  because  of  his  great  intelligence, 
but  that  he  has  great  intelligence  because  of  his  many 
possibilities  of  movement.  The  marvellous  skill  of  the 
bee  in  constructing  his  comb  according  to  the  best 
engineering  principles  is  due,  not  to  his  intelligence, 
but  to  his  mechanical  structure,  which  renders  it  less 
easy  or  perhaps  impossible  for  him  to  build  otherwise. 

Instincts,  in  as  far  as  they  are  purely  instinctive,  are 
always  blind.  Only  when  two  instinctive  tendencies  are 
aroused  by  a  stimulus  is  the  eye  of   conscious  inteUi- 


NATIVE   MOTOR   ACTIVITIES  39 

gence  opened  to  choose  by  the  aid  of  the  light  of  a  past 
experience  the  most  favorable  reaction. 

In  the  case  of  animals  like  fishes  and  insects  with 
only  a  few  fixed  instincts,  the  light  of  experience  re- 
veals to  the  dim  eye  of  consciousness  no  other  mode  of 
response,  and  the  baited  hook  is  again  taken  or  the 
sizzling  light  again  approached. 

In  higher  animals,  Hke  chickens  and  children,  a  single 
flash  of  past  experience,  such  as  the  unpleasant  feeling 
of  a  furry  caterpillar  to  the  bill,  or  of  a  hot  stove  to  the 
hand,  reveals  to  the  clearer  eye  of  consciousness  another 
more  desirable  mode  of  reaction  when  the  same  tactile 
or  visual  sensation  associated  with  it  is  again  experi- 
enced. The  fewer  the  experiences  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  change  in  the  reaction  necessary  to  secure 
the  most  favorable  results,  and  the  longer  the  time 
before  the  light  enkindled  by  past  experience  is  extin- 
guished, the  greater  is  the  intelligence  in  animal  or 
child. 

Not  extraordinary  skill  in  doing  the  same  thing  in 
the  same  way  all  through  life,  by  one  generation  after 
another,  as  in  the  case  of  animals  with  fixed  instincts, 
but  ability  to  act  in  a  variety  of  ways  and  to  learn  by 
experience,  is  evidence  of  intelligence.  Man  has  more 
instincts  than  any  other  animal;  but  the  variety  of 
action  thus  made  possible,  and  the  modifications  pro- 
duced by  experience,  make  it  seem  as  if  he  had  none. 
We  must  remember,  however,  that  his  purely  instinctive 
actions  are  just  as  blind  as  those  of  the  bee,  and  that 
consciousness  is  useful  only  after  there  has  been  ex- 
perience, and  when  there  is  a  possibility  of  more  than 
one  reaction. 


/ 


40  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

CONDITIONS    AFFECTING    THE     USEFULNESS     OF     INSTINCTS 

Evidently  every  species  of  animal  that  does  not  in 
general  act  for  its  own  good  would,  in  the  struggle  for 
existence,  soon  become  extinct,  hence  instincts  are  in 
general  useful.  What  is  for  the  good  of  a  young  ani- 
mal depends  upon  (i)  structure  of  the  animal,  (2)  its 
surroundings,  (3)  its  temporary  bodily  condition,  (4)  its 
age,  and  (5)  the  instincts  of  its  parents. 

(i)  If  dogs  had  the  instinct  to  dive  when  threatened 
with  danger,  and  fish  to  jump  out  on  dry  land,  neither 
would  long  survive  as  a  species.  If  the  puny  rabbit 
had  the  fighting  instinct  of  the  bulldog  instead  of  the 
running  instinct  of  the  deer,  his  career  would  have  been 
cut  short  long  before  this.  This  merely  emphasizes  the 
truth  already  stated,  that  instinct  must  conform  to  struc- 
ture in  every  species  of  animal. 

(2)  What  form  of  action  is  favorable  depends  upon 
the  environment.  Birds  in  the  south  need  to  go  north 
when  it  gets  warmer ;  but  if  they  are  in  the  north,  they 
need  to  go  south  when  it  gets  colder.  If  the  climate  is 
too  wet  for  an  animal,  he  needs  an  instinct  that  impels 
him  to  seek  dry  places  ;  but  if  it  is  too  dry,  he  should 
have  an  instinctive  tendency  to  seek  water.  Some 
animals  have  two  fixed  types  of  instincts  with  action 
suited  to  the  two  kinds  of  environment  with  which  they 
are  likely  to  come  in  contact.  All  muskrat  houses 
built  in  pools  are  on  the  same  general  plan,  while  a  dif- 
ferent, but  equally  constant,  form  is  used  when  the  nests 
are  built  in  streams. 

Instincts  of  animals  that  are  useful  to  them  in  their 
natural  environment  may  become  destructive  to  them 


NATIVE   MOTOR   ACTIVITIES  4 1 

when  the  environment  is  changed  suddenly  by  geologi- 
cal agencies  or  by  the  entrance  of  man.  Thus  lights 
destroy  countless  insects  and  birds,  and  man  makes  use 
of  the  curiosity  of  animals  concerning  strange  motion- 
less objects,  in  luring  them  to  destruction,  and  of  the 
feeding  instinct,  to  attract  them  by  baits  to  his  hooks 
and  traps.  Animals  that  most  quickly  adapt  themselves 
to  these  changes  in  environment  are  the  ones  that  sur- 
vive in  spite  of  man's  cunning  attacks.  Every  instinct 
must  have  developed  in  an  environment  where  it  was 
useful ;  but  if  the  present  environment  is  different,  the 
instinct  may  be  useless  or  injurious,  and  thus  handicap 
or  destroy  instead  of  help  preserve. 

(3)  The  condition  of  the  animal  at  the  moment  also 
determines  the  usefulness  of  his  actions.  An  animal 
that  would  turn  away  from  food  when  his  stomach  was 
empty,  and  eat  it  when  his  stomach  was  already  filled, 
would  not  long  survive.  A  deer  that  had  a  strong  im- 
pulse to  fight  when  shedding  his  horns  instead  of  when 
they  were  well  grown  and  firm,  would  be  at  a  disad- 
vantage in  preserving  himself  and  his  species. 

(4)  It  is  evident  that  an  animal  when  young  and 
helpless  and  with  parents  to  care  for  it,  needs  a  dif- 
ferent course  of  action  from  that  required  when  well 
grown  and  dependent  upon  its  own  exertions  for  food 
and  safety ;  while  if  it  has  young  to  care  for,  its  instinc- 
tive action  must  be  such  that  the  species  will  be  per- 
petuated. It  follows,  therefore,  that  to  be  useful, 
instincts  must  be  adapted  to  different  ages,  as  well 
as  to  differences  in  structure,  bodily  condition,  and 
environment. 

(5)  It  has  been  found  that  in  general  an  animal  at 


42  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

its  birih  has  just  enough  instincts  to  preserve  its  life 
with  the  aid  of  the  complementary  instincts  of  its  par- 
ents. For  example,  parent  robins  have  an  instinctive 
tendency  to  carry  food  and  put  it  into  the  mouths  of 
their  young,  hence  young  robins  need  only  to  open  the 
mouth  when  the  parent  robin  approaches.  The  young 
chicken,  however,  has  the  instinct  to  approach  and  peck 
at  food,  for  the  mother  hen  has  only  the  instinct  to  find 
and  show  food  to  her  young.  The  human  infant  needs 
and  has  at  birth  few  instincts,  because  the  human 
pareiU^ha^  the  instinctive  tendency  to  care  for  it  strongly 
developed. 

FLXED    AND    INDEFINITE    INSTINCTS 

Evidently  instincts  are  useful  just  so  far  as  they  suc- 
cessfully adjust  the  action  of  an  animal  to  the  condition 
imposed  by  its  environment,  so  as  to  preserve  the  indi- 
vidual and  produce  descendants.  The  actions  that  are 
always  or  nearly  always  useful  to  an  animal  of  a  certain 
structure  in  all  environments,  as,  for  example,  those  of 
gathering  honey  and  building  combs  by  bees,  and  web 
spinning  and  fly  catching  by  spiders,  are  usually  fixed 
and  unchangeable ;  while  actions  whose  usefulness  de- 
pends upon  special  circumstances  are  usually  general 
and  indefinite  in  character.  The  young  chicken  has  the 
general  instinct  to  follow  any  moving  object,  and  this 
instinct  is  usually  specialized  by  experience  into  a  ten- 
dency to  follow  the  mother  hen,  but  may  at  the  proper 
time  be  just  as  readily  specialized,  as  Spaulding  has 
shown,  into  a  tendency  to  follow  a  person  or  a  dog. 
The  general  instinct  of  fear  is  usually  manifested  in  the 
form  of  fear  of  any  strange  object  that  is  in  any  way 


NATIVE   MOTOR   ACTIVITIES  43 

exciting,  and  experience  specializes  this  into  fear  of 
particular  animals,  as  cats  of  dogs  and  chickens  of 
hawks. 

Through  the  experience  of  the  ages  and  natural  selec- 
tion, nature  has  prepared  her  children  to  act  in  such  a 
way  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  they  and  their  descend- 
ants will  be  preserved,  though  in  exceptional  cases  the 
action  may  prove  fatal.  Where  the  chances  are  nearly 
equal  as  to  what  forms  of  reaction  to  certain  stimuli  will 
be  favorable,  the  instinct  is  plastic,  so  that  the  best 
mode  of  reaction  in  the  present  environment  may  be 
developed  by  imitation  and  by  the  individual's  own 
experience.  Even  quite  fixed  instincts  need  to  be 
plastic,  so  that  there  may  be  ready  adaptation  to 
changes  in  environment.  In  past  ages  it  was  universally 
advantageous  for  fish  to  take  all  worms  and  grasshop- 
pers dropping  into  the  stream  ;  but  when  man  came  on 
the  scene  with  hooks,  the  instinct  often  had  bad  results. 
Probably  the  native  instinct  to  snap  at  every  worm  has 
not  been  destroyed ;  but  the  more  intelligent  fish  have 
the  instinct  modified  by  experience,  as  many  fishermen 
can  testify. 

We  therefore  find  some  instincts  that  are  perfect  at 
birth,  and  unchanging  throughout  thousands  of  genera- 
tions of  the  species,  and  others  so  imperfect  at  first  and  so 
variable  in  form  that  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  habits  developed  by  individual  experience.  In 
general,  the  fixed  instincts  are  the  most  prominent  in 
lower  animals,  and  the  indefinite  in  the  higher.  This 
is  not  so  much  because  the  higher  animal  has  no  definite 
instincts,  as  it  is  because  he  has  so  many  partially  or 
wholly  indefinite  or  undeveloped  ones. 


44  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

CONTINUOUS,    TRANSIENT,    AND    PERIODIC    INSTINCTS 

Since  the  structure  of  an  animal  and  the  usefulness 
of  any  form  of  action  varies  with  age,  we  should  expect 
that  the  instincts  of  any  given  species  of  animals  would 
not  be  equally  strong  at  all  times.  Observation  confirms 
this  view.  Some  instincts,  like  the  feeding  and  fear 
instincts,  are  present  at  birth  and  last  all  through  life, 
though  usually  they  are  more  prominent  at  some  times 
than  at  others. 

Other  instincts,  like  that  of  play,  are  not  present  at 
birth,  but  after  they  appear,  continue  to  be  manifested 
all  or  nearly  all  through  life,  though  perhaps  in  a  dimin- 
ishing degree.  The  instinct  of  chickens  to  follow  is  a 
transient  instinct,  entirely  disappearing  in  a  short  time  if 
not  developed  by  experience. 

Other  instincts  appear  only  at  certain  times,  as  at  the 
migrating  season  or  when  caring  for  young,  and  are 
therefore  in  a  certain  degree  rhythmic  or  periodic. 

The  chief  problem  which  child  study  has  to  solve  is 

to  determine  the  time  at  which  each  instinct  of  man  is 

'^-       naturally  most  prominent.     This  being  done,  the  prob- 

^^^'       lem  of  the  educator  is  to  apply  the  right  stimuli  at  the 

J?       right  time,  so  as  to  produce  the  most  perfect  and  rapid 

V  development  according  to  his  ideas  of  what  is  desirable. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    DETERMINING    THE    ORDER    OF 
DEVELOPMENT    OF    INSTINCTS 

In  the  plant  world  the  order  of  development  —  leaves, 
stalk,  blossom,  fruit  —  is  very  definite  and  fixed.  In 
the  animal  world  the  growth  of  parts  of  the  body  and 
the  appearance  of  hair,  horns,  etc.,  are  nearly  as  fixed 


NATIVE   MOTOR   ACTIVITIES  45 

and  unvarying.  Since  structure  and  instinct  are  closely 
related,  we  should  expect  to  find  a  definite  order  in 
which  the  instincts  of  each  species  of  animal  tend  to 
develop.  Observation  confirms  this  view  in  a  general 
way,  as  young  animals  do  not  show  the  mating,  migrat- 
ing, nest-constructing,  and  care-taking  instincts  of  adult 
animals,  nor  adult  animals  the  same  degree  of  playful- 
ness as  the  younger  ones.  When,  however,  we  attempt 
to  determine  exactly  the  order  in  which  instincts  develop, 
many  doubts  and  difficulties  arise. 
^  The  most  common  theoretical  statement  of  the  order 
'  in  which  instincts  develop  is  that  they  appear  in  the 
order  in  which  they  have  been  acquired  in  the  history 
of  the  race,  from  the  lowest  forms  up.  This  view  is 
supported  by  the  general  biological  law  discovered  in 
the  study  of  embryology,  that  in  the  embryonic  state 
each  animal  goes  through  stages  of  development  in 
which  it  is  successively  similar  in  form  or  proportion  of 
parts  to  a  higher  and  still  higher  animal,  till  it  attains 
the  form  of  its  species,  and  also  by  numerous  parallel- 
isms that  can  be  pointed  out  in  the  development  of  a 
child  after  birth  with  that  of  the  human  race  since  it 
has  become  human.  This  law  is  supposed  to  apply  not 
so  much  to  the  first  appearance  of  the  various  instincts 
as  to  the  time  of  their  greatest  prominence. 

There  are  two  other  theoretical  considerations,  how- 
ever, that  should  be  given  almost  equal  weight  with  this 
theory  of  correspondence  in  the  development  of  the 
child  and  the  race.  In  the  first  place,  the  strongest 
instincts  should  be  those  thathaye^  been  most  univer- 
sally useful  to  all  species  of  animals  m.  all  ages,  rather 
than  the  oldest.     For  example,  the  swmimiag^nstinct 


46  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

is  probably  one  of  the  oldest  instincts,  but  it  has  been 
of  little  use  among  many  species  of  animals,  hence  it 
is  not  strong  in  all  young  animals.  The  instinct  to 
withdraw  from  an  unfavorable  stimulus  has,  however, 
been  useful  to  all  animals  in  all  stages  of  development ; 
hence  it  is  universally  present  and  prominent  in  young 
animals. 

Again,  we  have  noted  the  truth  that  different  instincts 
are  needed  at  different  stages  of  development ;  hence  if 
instincts  developed  in  the  same  order  in  the  individual 
as  in  the  race,  in  any  species  of  animals,  that  species 
probably  would  not  long  survive,  since  the  reproductive 
and  care-taking  instincts  are  useful  to  the  species  only 
when  they  appear  in  mature  animals.  Hence,  though 
the  parental  instinct  is  one  of  the  oldest  instincts,  it  is 
yet  one  of  the  latest  to  become  prominent  in  individual 
development. 

CAUSES    OF    DIFFERENCES   IN   INDIVIDUALS    OF     THE   SAME 

SPECIES 

Besides  these  fundamental,  theoretical  principles  to  be 
considered  in  applying  the  main  theory  of  correspond- 
ence between  race  and  individual  development,  there  are 
others,  depending  upon  special  conditions  and  upon  the 
laws  governing  the  development  of  instincts.  Since 
the  appearance  of  instincts  depends  upon  structure  and 
physiological  conditions,  especially  nutritive,  an  animal 
must  be  in  good  normal  condition  to  show  forth  at 
the  proper  time  feeding,  playing,  fighting,  and  sexual 
instincts. 

Since  instincts  depend  also  upon  outer  stimuli,  the 
appropriate   stimulus   must  be   presented   at  the  time 


NATIVE  MOTOR  ACTIVITIES  47 

when,  because  of  the  internal  bodily  conditions,  the 
instinct  is  ripe,  or  the  instinctive  reaction  may  never 
appear.  For  example,  the  swimming  instinct  does  not 
appear  in  ducks  except  in  the  presence  of  water,  and 
perhaps  not  without  actual  contact  of  the  whole  body 
with  it.  For  this  reason  environment  may  favor  the 
development  of  some  instincts  at  certain  times  much  more 
than  at  others.  If  the  proper  stimulus  is  never  given,  or 
if  the  instinctive  tendency  is  transient,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case,  the  instinct  may  never  appear.  For  example, 
the  instinct  of  burying  bones  shown  by  most  dogs  either 
does  not  appear,  or  appears  only  a  few  times  if,  while 
young,  they  are  kept  all  the  time  on  boards.  It  is 
doubtful  if  chickens  would  scratch  if  kept  all  the  time 
on  a  smooth  floor  with  no  unevenness  as  stimulus  to  their 
feet.  Certainly  they  will  not  follow  unless  the  instinct 
has  exercise  during  the  first  few  weeks. 

Although  most  instincts  are  stronger  at  certain  ages 
or  at  certain  times  of  the  year  than  at  others,  yet  most 
of  them  continue  to  exist  in  some  degree  during  the 
whole  life  of  the  animal,  both  before  their  evident  appear- 
ance, and  after  the  instinctive  tendency  ceases  to  play 
a  prominent  part  in  the  actions  of  the  animal.  Some 
instincts  vary  but  little  in  strength  all  through  life ;  yet 
even  these  may  develop  in  quite  different  ways  in  dif- 
ferent animals  of  the  same  species  because  of  early 
experience.  For  example,  the  feeding  instinct  is  always 
present,  but  animals  and  persons  in  certain  localities  get 
into  the  habit  of  eating  certain  things  and  no  longer 
have  an  impulse  to  try  any  other  kind  of  food  when  it  is 
presented,  though  when  young  they  would  have  taken 
it  as  readily  as  what  they  now  feed  upon  exclusively. 


48  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

The  feeding  instinct  is  specialized,  yet,  if  very  hungry  and 
unable  to  get  their  habitual  food,  such  animals  and  persons 
take  new  foods  which  ordinarily  they  would  not  touch. 

It  is  evident  that  with  all  these  complications,  the 
most  common  and  natural  order  of  development  of 
instincts  in  animals  is  very  difficult  to  determine.  The 
problem  is  still  harder  in  children,  who  have  so  many 
instincts,  most  of  which  are  during  a  long  period 
easily  modified  by  special  conditions.  Something,  how- 
ever, has  been  determined,  as  will  be  indicated  later. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  As  a  machine,  how  does  an  animal  differ  from  other  machines  ? 

2.  Do  acquired  movements  ever  become  nearly  as  automatic  as 
breathing  ?     Illustrate. 

3.  Give  examples  of  instinctive  and  of  reflex  movements. 

4.  Illustrate  the  fact  that  structure  and  instinct  correspond  not 
only  in  diiferent  animals,  and  also  in  the  same  animals  at  different 
times.  How  can  naturalists  tell  the  instincts  of  extinct  animals  by 
examining  their  bones  ? 

5.  Are  there  any  acts  that  you  can  perform  better  when  not 
thinking  of  them  ?     What  kind  of  acts  are  they  ? 

6.  Why  does  an  architect  need  to  be  more  intelligent  than  a 
mason,  or  a  squirrel  more  intelHgent  than  a  fish  ? 

7.  When  is  a  deer  probably  most  conscious  and  fearful,  when 
fleeing  from  danger  or  when  cornered  ? 

8.  Give  several  illustrations  of  learning  from  few  experiences  by 
animals  or  children  as  evidence  of  intelligence. 

9.  Give  illustrations  of  the  various  conditions  affecting  the  use- 
fulness of  instincts. 

10.  Give  examples  of  fixed  and  of  indefinite  instincts. 

1 1 .  Give  illustrations  of  transient  or  periodic  instincts. 

12.  Give  some  parallels  between  the  development  of  the  child 
and  the  race. 

13.  Illustrate  how  the  instincts  of  individuals  may  be  modified 
by  accidental  causes. 


NATIVE   MOTOR  ACTIVITIES  49 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

The  best  chapter  on  instinct  is  in  James's  Psychology,  and  one 
of  the  best  popular  books  on  the  subject  is  Chadbourne's 
Instinct.     All  books  on  animals  treat  on  the  subject. 

The  following  chapters  bear  on  the  nature  and  use  of  instincts : 
Morgan,  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence,  chap,  xi ;  Romanes, 
Mental  Evolution  in  Animals,  chap,  xi ;  Wundt,  Human  and 
Animal  Psychology,  chaps,  xvi  and  xvii ;  Marshall,  Instinct  and 
Reason,  chap,  iii ;  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  chap,  viii ;  Jordan  and 
Kellogg,  Animal  Life,  chaps,  xiv  and  xv. 

The  relation  of  instinct  to  consciousness  and  intelligence  is  dis- 
cussed ably  in  Morgan,  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence,  chap, 
xii,  and  Comparative  Psychology,  chap,  xii,  and  Minot,  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  289-303 ;  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  208-214; 
Watkins,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  166-180. 

The  mechanism  of  reflex  and  instinctive  movements  are  discussed 
by  Jennings,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  503-515,  and  in  Loeb's 
Physiology  of  the  Brain. 

On  the  general  order  of  development  read  Vincent,  The  Social 
Mind  and  Education,  pp.  66-90;  Swift,  Jr.  Ped.,  March,  1900, 
pp.  295-303 ;  Guillet,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  397-445. 


CHAPTER   IV 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSTINCTS 

BASIS    OF    CLASSIFICATION 

In  attempting  to  classify  instincts  it  is  not  possible 
to  classify  them  according  to  the  nature  of  the  stimulus 
or  the  kind  of  movements  made,  or  the  bodily  or  mental 
states  of  the  animals,  for  these  are  all  so  various  that 
they  cannot  be  grouped  under  a  few  heads.  Again, 
those  features  are  not  of  universal  signincance,  since 
what  is  a  useful  stimulus  or  movement  to  one  animal  is 
harmful  to  another.  Since  all  instincts  owe  their  exist- 
ence to  their  usefulness,  the  uses  subserved  by  the  vari- 
ous instincts  should  be  the  basis  of  classification.  To  a 
considerable  extent  all  animals  have  the  same  general 
needs,  hence  a  classification  based  on  the  ends  gained 
by  instinctive  acts  will  apply  to  all  forms  of  animal  life, 
including  man. 

From  the  amoeba,  which  can  only  contract  and  ex- 
pand, up  through  the  paramecium,  which  has  cilia  that 
can  move  in  two  ways,  and  the  duck,  which  may  in  the 
presence  of  danger  shrink  into  hiding  or  use  its  legs  in 
running  or  swimming  or  diving,  or  its  wings  in  flying, 
to  man,  who  may  hide,  run,  swim,  dive,  fight,  or  make 
use  of  the  voice  in  calling  help  or  intimidating  an  assail- 
ant, or  of  artificial  means  of  getting  away,  attacking, 

51 


52  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

or  intimidating,  we  have  increasing  variety  of  means  of 
securing  what  is  substantially  the  same  end,  that  of 
escaping  danger.  All  actions,  therefore,  that  are  clearly 
designed  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  same  end  may 
properly  be  grouped  together,  though  differing  greatly 
in  complexity,  kind  of  motions  involved,  and  nature  of 
stimuli  calling  them  forth.  Movements  about  equally 
useful  in  accomplishing  several  ends  are  harder  to  clas- 
sify, but  may  best  be  put  in  a  group  by  themselves. 

I.     INDIVIDUALISTIC    OR    SELF-PRESERVATIVE    INSTINCTS 

All  tendencies  to  action  which  have  for  their  primary 
end  the  good  of  the  individual  belong  under  this  head. 
The  most  fundamental  and  universal  form  of  this  in- 
stinct is  shown  in  the  tendency  to  contract  the  body 
and  withdraw  from  unfavorable  stimuli,  and  expand  or 
approach  toward  favorable  ones. 

In  its  most  primitive  form  the  tendency  to  approach 
favorable  and  recede  from  unfavorable  stimuli  is  found 
only  in  the  tendency  to  move  so  as  to  increase  favorable 
or  decrease  unfavorable  stimuli  already  being  received. 
For  example,  all  animals,  and  even  plants  to  some 
extent,  move  toward  or  away  from  light,  heat,  chemical 
and  mechanical  stimuli,  so  as  to  get  more  or  less  of 
them  according  to  the  nature  of  their  organism.  Even 
headless  worms  move  so  as  to  secure  more  of  the  kind 
of  heat  and  light  stimulations  most  favorable  to  them. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  migration  of  fish  into  fresh 
water,  before  spawning,  is  the  result  of  activity  that  in- 
creases the  thermal  and  chemical  stimulation  most  favor- 
able to  the  fish  in  the  condition  in  which  they  are  at  that 
season  of  the  year.     The  movement  of  a  fox  toward  a 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSTINCTS  53 

partridge  which  he  scents  is  of  this  nature,  though 
probably  supplemented  by  conscious  expectation. 

Besides  this  tendency,  which  is  universal  in  ?^\  ani- 
mals, from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  most  animals  have 
a  tendency  to  move  about  and  to  react  in  certain  ways 
to  certaip  stimuli,  before  there  is  any  chance  to  experi- 
ence their  favorable  or  unfavorable  character  in  even  a 
slight  degree.  The  chief  ends  subserved  by  the  indi- 
vidualistic instincts  are  the  securing  of  food,  and  the 
avoidance  or  defeat  of  enemies.  The  chief  forms  of 
this  instinct  may  be  designated  as  the  feeding,  fearing^ 
and  fighting  instincts. 

The  amoeba  simply  wraps  itself  around  the  food 
which  it  touches,  while  the  lion  stalks,  kills,  bites, 
chews,  and  swallows  its  prey.  In  both  cases  the  same 
end  is  subserved.  All  movements  made  in  taking, 
chewing,  and  swallowing  food  are  examples  of  indi- 
viduaHstic  instincts,  and  the  same  is  true  of  all  move- 
ments used  exclusively  in  escaping  enemies  by  fighting, 
shamming  death,  or  getting  away.  It  is  evident  that 
means  of  locomotion,  such  as  swimming,  crawling,  run- 
ning, and  flying,  are  useful  both  in  obtaining  food, 
escaping  enemies,  fighting,  and  in  obtaining  other  ends. 
There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  they  were  originally 
developed  and  are  now  most  used  in  self-preservation. 

II.     PARENTAL    INSTINCTS 

If  animals  (except  the  lowest,  which  are  without  sex 
and  multiply  by  division)  had  no  instincts  except  those 
connected  with  self-preservation,  there  would  be  only 
one  generation  of  each  kind.  To  live  as  a  species, 
animals  must  have  instincts  impelling  them  to  produce 


54  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

and  care  for  young,  as  well  as  instincts  impelling  them 
to  preserve  their  own  lives.  Not  only  must  they  have 
these  instincts,  but  in  most  animals  at  certain  times  the 
parental  instinct  must  be  stronger  than  the  individualistic 
instinct,  so  that  animals  with  young  will  deny  themselves 
food  and  risk  their  lives  to  feed  and  defend  their  off- 
spring from  danger,  otherwise  the  species  would  not 
continue  to  exist. 

In  the  lower  animals,  such  as  fishes  and  insects, 
which  produce  thousands  and  even  millions  of  young, 
there  is  need  only  for  instincts  leading  to  fertilization 
and  laying  of  eggs  in  favorable  places ;  while  in  higher 
animals,  such  as  mammals  and  birds,  where  only  a  few 
young  are  produced  each  year,  and  they  helpless  and 
in  a  complex  and  dangerous  environment,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  parents  shall  have  the  instinct  of  caring  for 
their  young  highly  developed. 

All  actions,  therefore,  that  have  for  their  primary  end 
the  producing  of  young,  and  preparing  for  and  taking 
care  of  them,  are  classed  under  *'  Parental  Instincts." 
Hence  under  this  head  we  may  include,  with  the  more 
obvious  actions,  those  less  directly  related  to  the  per- 
petuation of  the  species,  such  as  singing,  self-exhibition, 
fighting  for  mates,  and  nest  building. 

III.     GROUP    OR    SOCIAL    INSTINCTS 

Many  lower  animals,  such  as  bees  and  ants,  always 
live  in  colonies,  and  have  instincts  that  impel  them  to 
act  primarily  for  the  good  of  the  group  to  which  they 
belong,  and  only  indirectly  for  the  good  of  themselves 
or  their  species.  In  many  instances  there  are  in  each 
group  several  different  types  of  individuals  with  corre- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSTINCTS  55 

spending  differences  in  instincts.  In  the  case  of  bees 
and  ants  there  are  nearly  always  three  or  more  types 
in  each  community.  Some  of  the  higher  animals,  such 
as  wolves  and  cattle,  go  in  groups  a  part  or  all  of  the 
time,  and  cooperate  in  securing  food  and  escaping  dan- 
ger. In  so  doing  they  act  not  merely  for  their  own  good 
and  for  the  good  of  their  species  as  represented  in  their 
young,  but  for  the  good  of  the  group  to  which  they 
belong. 

This  instinct  is  closely  related  to,  and  possibly  the 
outgrowth  of,  the  parental  instinct.  It  is  especially 
prominent  in  man,  where  the  tendency  is  fostered 
by  the  family  life  resulting  from  the  long  period  of 
infancy.  Association  and  cooperation  in  family  life  pre- 
pare individuals  for  association  and  cooperation  with 
other  individuals  not  of  the  same  family.  The  predomi- 
nance of  man  over  other  animals  is  due  in  no  small 
part  to  the  greater  tendency  of  men  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  groups,  and  cooperate  for  the  common  good 
in  attack  and  defence.  In  the  history  .of„. the.,  world 
those  tribes  and  nations  that  have  had  this  tendency 
most  strongly  developed  are  the  ones  that  have  won 
in  the  struggle  for  existence.  The  lack  of  this 
instinct  is  the  weakness  of  the  Chinese,  who  would 
otherwise  be  one  of  the  strongest,  if  not  the  strongest, 
of  nations. 

This  social  instinct  in  man,  and  probably  in  some 
animals,  leads  not  only  to  seeking  companionship  and 
acting  with  others  of  the  species,  but  to  desiring  the 
approval  of  the  group  which  one  joins.  This  in  man 
develops  into  pride  and  ambition,  and  may  also  give 
rise  to  rivalry,  jealousy,  embarrassment,  and  shame. 


$6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD    STUDY 

IV.     ADAPTIVE    INSTINCTS 

Since  all  the  higher  animals  come  into  the  world  in 
an  unfinished  state,  they  need  to  be  and  are  very  plastic 
to  surrounding  forces  which  develop  and  mould  them 
so  that  they  become  capable  of  surviving  and  making 
their  own  living  in  the  environment  into  which  they 
are  born.  Mere  clay-like  plasticity  to  outside  impres- 
sions, however,  is  not  sufficient.  The  young  animal 
not  only  adapts  himself  to  his  environment  by  respond- 
ing to  the  stimuli  he  receives  in  ways  most  favorable 
to  himself,  but  he  actively  seeks  stimuli  and  repeats 
actions  when  their  former  stimuli  are  not  affecting  him. 
This  inner  tendency  to  actively  increase  the  number  of 
stimuli  and  reactions  is  the  basis  of  the  adaptive  instincts. 

Two  phases  of  this  tendency  are  more  properly 
physiological  laws  than  instincts.  One  is  the  tendency 
to  sJ)07itaneoiis  movement,  i.e.  movement  without  any 
discernible  external  stimulus.  Such  movements  proba- 
bly originate  in  the  chemical  chafiges  involved  in  nutri- 
tion of  the  organism,  especially  the  nerve  centres. 
They  begin  in  the  embryonic  stage ;  young  chicks,  for 
example,  before  hatching,  make  frequent  movements 
when  there  is  no  perceptible  change  in  the  surround- 
ings that  could  serve  as  a  stimulus.  These  spontaneous 
or  random  movements  are  very  numerous  in  early  life, 
and  hence  there  is  greater  opportunity  to  select  and 
perfect  such  of  these  chance  movements  as  prove  use- 
ful. Such  movements  have  the  same  place  in  the 
development  of  individuals  that  variation  has  in  the 
development  of  the  species,  i.e.  they  furnish  material 
for  natural  selection. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSTINCTS  57 

The  other  physiological  principle  is  the  tendency  for 
nervous  eiiergy  to  take  the  same  course  that  has  just 
been  taken.  This  not  only  favors  the  development  of 
habit  through  the  performance  of  the  same  act  when 
the  conditions  are  reproduced,  but  may,  when'  there 
is  a  surplus  of  energy  or  a  tendency  to  action  because 
of  some  other  stimulus,  result  in  one  or  more  repeti- 
tions of  the  act  without  the  repetition  of  the  originating 
stimulus.  This  tendency  causes  a  child  to  respond  in 
the  same  way  to  several  stimuli,  as  answering  "yes" 
to  various  questions,  and  to  repeat  a  number  of  times 
any  act  that  he  performs,  as  saying  such  a  syllable  as 
"da,"  waving  with  the  hand,  or  jumping  up  and  down. 
This  tendency  to  what  Baldwin  calls  the  "  circular 
form  of  reaction,"  is  so  strong  that  it  often  seems 
almost  impossible  for  children  to  stop  with  one  per- 
formance of  an  act.  Painful  and  unfavorable  results 
may  inhibit  this  tendency,  and  pleasure  or  favorable 
results  increase  it;  but  it  does  not  owe  its  existence 
wholly  to  the  results  of  movements.  Clearly  with  this 
tendency  the  power  of  movement  must  develop  much 
.more  rapidly  than  it  would  if  a  movement  were  repeated 
only  when  the  same  inner  or  outer  conditions  happened 
to  call  it  forth  again. 

These  two  physiological  tendencies  to  random  move- 
ment and  to  repetition  of  movement  are  not,  however, 
properly  speaking,  instincts ;  for  though  they  favor 
varied  and  rapid  development  of  powers,  they  do  not 
favor  those  that  are  useful  to  the  organism  any  more  than 
those  that  are  harmful.  They  are  the  basis,  however,  of 
the  three  following  tendencies  which  may  more  properly 
be  called  instincts,  — hnitation,  play,  and  curiosity. 


58  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Imitation  may  be  defined  in  a  general  way  as  the 
tendency  to  repeat  what  has  been  perceived,  especially 
the  sounds  and  movements  made  by  others  of  the 
same  species.  There  is  an  outer  stimulus  in  imitation 
that  calls  forth  a  movement  producing  to  some  extent 
the  same  stimulus.  It  is  evident  that  this  tendency  is 
often  of  direct  use  to  an  animal  in  adapting  itself  to  its 
surroundings ;  for  the  young  animal  that  imitates  his 
elders  (which  are  already  adapted  to  their  environment), 
in  seeking  shelter,  selecting  food,  and  avoiding  enemies, 
is  much  more  likely  to  survive  than  the  one  who  must 
learn  what  is  good  for  him  from  his  own  chance  ex- 
periences, any  one  of  which  may  result  fatally.  The 
advantages  to  the  child  who  has  so  much  to  learn  are 
still  greater,  hence  he  is  the  most  imitative  of  all  young 
animals. 

Play,  or  the  tendency  to  perform  acts  for  their  own 
sake  rather  than  for  the  ends  to  be  gained  by  them, 
is  of  direct  use  to  all  immature  animals  because  it  gives 
practice  in  performing  acts  before  there  is  any  serious 
need  for  their  performance,  or  any  dangerous  results 
from  imperfect  performance.  It  is  evident  that  animals 
that  play  at  chasing  and  fighting  when  young  will  have  a 
great  advantage  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  when  they 
have  to  make  their  own  way  in  Hfe,  over  those  that  have 
not  played  in  youth.  Sometimes  play  is  not  distinguish- 
able from  the  tendency  to  spontaneous  movements,  or 
the  circular  form  of  reaction,  or  from  imitation.  Playful 
acts  are  always  performed  for  their  own  sake,  usually 
prepare  for  future  usefulness,  and  are  the  outcome  of 
inner  tendencies  of  development  resulting  from  past 
experiences  of  the  race. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSTINCTS  59 

Since  playful  acts  are  always  performed  for  their 
own  sake,  they  are  always  suited  to  the  powers  of  the 
performer,  neither  too  easy  nor  too  difficult.  This  is 
not  denying  the  well-known  fact  that  plays  once  started 
are  often  continued  too  long,  so  as  to  produce  extreme 
fatigue  and  exhaustion  of  powers.  In  such  cases,  how- 
ever, as  a  rule,  the  tendencies  that  give  zest  to  the  game 
are  not  exhausted,  though  some  powers  needed  in  carry- 
ing it  out  are. 

Play,  in  general,  is  not  completely  determined  either 
by  chance  nutritive  changes  within  the  organism  or  by 
stimulation  from  the  outer  environment,  but  by  the  ten- 
dency to  certain  forms  of  action  which  have  been  useful 
to  the  race,  and  which  are  not  being  used  in  a  serious 
way.  Surplus  energy  tends  to  flow  out  along  these  old 
racial  channels  as  fast  as  their  beginnings  are  developed 
in  the  young  animal.  Every  instinctive  tendency  is  there- 
fore manifested  in  play,  and  is  thus  perfected  for  future 
use.  Surplus  energy  is  a  favorable  condition  for  play,  but 
what  is  played  at  any  time  is  determined  largely  by  the 
degree  of  development  and  the  relative  prominence  of 
the  instincts  which  are  not  needed  for  serious  purposes. 

Curiosity^  unlike  imitation  and  play,  is  concerned 
more  with  the  securing  of  sensations  than  with  modes  of 
action.  It  is  an  intellectual  hunger,  an  impulse  to  se- 
cure and  test  new  sensations.  An  animal  that  possesses 
it  soon  comes  in  contact  with  all  phases  of  his  environ- 
ment, and  examines  every  new  thing  as  it  appears,  before 
attempting  to  eat,  attack,  or  run  away  from  it.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  this  instinct  helps  an  animal  to 
adapt  itself  to  its  environment,  and  to  more  quickly  dis- 
cover dangerous  or  advantageous  changes  in  its  sur- 


60  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

roundings.  Since  man  has  come  on  the  scene,  however, 
he  has  learned  to  use  this  instinct  to  the  destruction 
of  many  animals,  as,  for  example,  the  deer.  It  is  quite 
evident,  however,  that  under  natural  conditions  a  young 
animal  with  curiosity  will  become  adapted  to  its  environ- 
ment much  sooner  than  one  without  such  an  instinct. 
The  prominence  of  the  instinct  in  the  rat  has  thus  far 
prevented  his  complete  destruction  by  the  traps  and 
poisons  of  man. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  curiosity  is  the  basis 
of  all  intellectual  development  in  animals  and  in  man. 
Imitation  and  play  lead  to  the  development  of  powers 
and  the  acquisition  of  subjective  knowledge  of  observed 
acts,  by  causing  the  individual  to  perform  them  himself, 
while  curiosity  leads  to  objective  knowledge  of  all  kinds 
and  is  also  a  stimulus  to  the  acquisition  of  subjective 
knowledge  by  imitation.  Every  new  thing  introduced 
into  a  familiar  environment  is  a  stimulus  to  curiosity, 
and  every  new  relation  of  object  or  idea  to  other  familiar 
ones  is  equally  effective  in  man  ;  hence  curiosity  is  to  the 
intellect  what  appetite  is  to  the  body  —  a  cause  of  growth 
and  development. 

J  V.     REGULATIVE   INSTINCTS 

It  is  not  easy  to  demonstrate  clearly  the  existence  of 
these  instincts,  though  good  general  grounds  for  affirm- 
ing their  usefulness  and  their  existence  in  man  are 
easily  found.  Evidently,  every  species  of  animal  that 
is  to  survive  must  conform  to  the  laws  of  nature  and  the 
environment  in  which  it  lives.  Every  organism  must 
/  conform  to  th?7aws~of  rhythmic,  seasonal  changes  im- 
'    posed  by  the  sun  ;   hence  a  tendency  to  conform  to  con- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  INSTINCTS  6 1 

stant  environing  conditions,  or,  in  other  words,  to  act 
according  to  law,  has  naturally  developed.  Again,  the 
several  varieties  of  instincts  often  impel  to  opposing 
actions,  and  the  tendency  is  for  the  strongest  and  most 
quickly  acting  instinct  to  determine  action,  although 
safety  for  the  individual  and  species  may  He  in  the 
direction  of  the  action  suggested  by  a  more  slowly  act- 
ing instinct.  In  such  cases  a  tendency  to  pause  before 
acting  and  give  slower  instincts  time  to  awaken  and 
exercise  their  rightful  influence  would  be  of  advantage. 
Something  to  make  the  instincts  work  together  for  the 
good  of  the  animal  and  its  species  would  evidently  be 
useful. 

Such  an  instinct  probably  exists,  in  man  at  least,  in 
the  moral  tendency  to  conform  to  law  and  to  act 
for  the  good  of  others  as  well_  as  self,  and  in  the 
religious  tendency  to  regard_a_  Higher  Power.  This 
instinct  gives  rise  to  feelings  that  one  ought  to  act  in 
conformity  with  certain  laws  fixed  by  the  experience 
of  the  race,  or  by  customs  and  habits  of  groups  of 
individuals,  and  to  a  feeling  of  reverence  and  awe  in 
the  presence  of  the  Power  back  of  these  laws. 

The  constancy  of  law  in  preserving  uniform  conditions 
or  producing  rhythmic  variations  tends  to  develop  the 
moral  instinct  of  obedience,  while  the  power  manifested 
in  irregular  changes  in  nature,  as  in  the  case  of  storms, 
tends  to  stimulate  the  beginnings  of  the  religious  emo- 
tions of  awe  and  reverence.  For  these  reasons,  probably 
the  people  of  northern  countries,  where  seasonal  varia- 
tions are  great,  and  if  not  conformed  to,  destructive, 
have  the  sense  of  duty  much  more  highly  developed 
than  in  tropical   countries,  where  active  conformity   is 


\ 


62  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

not  called  for  to  any  great  extent.  The  difference 
between  the  gods  and  mythologies  of  northern  and 
southern  peoples  cannot  be  wholly  accounted  for  by 
social  heredity,  but  must  have  originated  in  the  natural 
surroundings. 

\  Since  every  race  and  tribe  of  people  has  some  form  of 
jmorality  and  worship,  there  is  good  reason  for  saying 
Ithat  the  tendencies  to  conform  to  law,  and  to  worship 
f  unknown  sources  of  power,  are  instinctive ;  though  what 
kind  of  law  is  obeyed,  or  source  of  power  worshipped,  is 
a  matter  of  local  surroundings  and  social  traditions. 

VI.     RESULTANT    AND    MISCELLANEOUS    INSTINCTS    AND 
FEELINGS 

Actions  for  the  attainment  of  the  various  ends  already 
enumerated,  and  numerous  combinations  and  oppositions 
of  ends  and  means  of  attainment,  give  rise  to  many  ten- 
dencies to  action  and  feeling  that  are  not  easily  classi- 
fied under  any  of  the  previously  named  heads.  Among 
the  most  prominent  of  these  impulses  and  associated 
feelings  are  :  (i)  the  tendency  to  collect  objects  of  various 
kinds  and  to  enjoy  their  ownership  ;  (2)  the  tendency  to 
construct  or  destroy,  and  the  pleasure  of  being  a  power 
or  a  cause;  (3)  the  tendency  to  express  mental  states  to 
others  of  the  species,  and  to  take  pleasure  in  such 
expression ;  (4)  the  tendency  to  adornment,  and  the 
making  of  beautiful  things,  and  the  aesthetic  pleasure  of 
contemplating  such  objects. 

A  careful  study  of  the  social  life  of  various  tribes  and 
nations  of  this  and  other  ages  will  show  that  these 
instincts  and  feelings  are,  in  every  man,  nearly  if  not 
quite  as  important  sources  of  action  as  the  more  funda- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  INSTINCTS  63 

mental  and  necessary  instincts,  which  impel  to  the  acqui- 
sition of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  or  the  means  of 
getting  them.  Museums,  apparatus  and  buildings  of  all 
kinds,  languages,  and  works  of  art  are  in  a  large  measure 
the  results  of  these  instincts  in  man  ;  and  there  is  not  an 
individual,  civiUzed  or  savage,  who  is  not  sometimes 
influenced  more  by  them  than  by  his  instinctive  desire 
for  food  and  shelter. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  illustrations  of  different   instinctive   modes   of  getting 
food,  escaping  danger,  and  fighting. 

2.  Describe  specific  instances  of  animals   acting  according   to 
the  parental  instinct  even  in  opposition  to  the  individualistic. 

3.  Describe  various  instinctive  modes  of  nesting  by  birds  and 
insects. 

4.  Give  illustrations  of  spontaneous   movements,  and   the   ten- 
dency to  repeat  movements  that  you  have  observed. 

5.  Give  illustrations  of  each  form  of  the  adaptive  instincts. 

6.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  need  of  regulative  instincts. 

7.  State   evidence   for   or  against   the  view   that  morality  and 
religion  are  instinctive. 

8.  Give   illustrations  of  each  of  the  resultant  instincts  named, 
and  mention  other  actions  that  you  think  may  be  instinctive. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

All  the  books  on  animal  psychology  and  instinct  will  furnish  illustra- 
tions of  the  various  instincts. 

A  good  discussion  of  classes  of  instincts  is  to  be  found  in  Mar- 
shall's Instinct  and  Reason,  chap,  v,  and  of  their  relation  to 
the  emotions  in  Ribot's  Psychology  of  the  Etnotions^  especially 
pp.  194-198  and  260-274. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HUMAN  INFANT 

EARLY     MOVEMENTS 

"  The  human  infant  is  a  very  helpless  being.  This  is 
in  accordance  with  the  general  law  that  young  animals 
have  just  enough  power  of  movement  so  that  when 
their  instincts  are  supplemented  by  those  of  their 
parents,  they  are  able  to  live. 

The  aiitofuatic  movements  of  independent  respiration, 
circulation,  and  digestion  begin  as  soon  as  the  child  is 
born. 

At  or  soon  after  birth,  reflex  movements  may  be 
called  forth  by  stimulating  any  of  the  senses,  and  most 
of  these  reflexes,  such  as  closing  the  eye  when  the  lid  is 
touched,  pushing  out  with  the  tongue  unfavorable 
objects,  and  withdrawing  a  hand  or  foot  that  is  painfully 
stimulated,  are  from  the  first,  useful;  while  others,  such 
as  clasping  with  toes  and  fingers  an  object  touching 
them,  were  probably  at  one  time  in  the  race  history  use- 
ful in  helping  the  mother  to  carry  the  child. 

The  histinctive  movements  are  very  few,  for  human 
parents  are  prepared  to  do  almost  everything  except 
breathe  and  digest  for  the  child.  Even  the  necessary 
and  important  instinct  of  sucking  is  sometimes  not  well 
performed  at  first.  Usually,  however,  it  is.  A  strong 
F  65 


66  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

infant  held  in  a  certain  position  and  lightly  touched  on 
the  cheek  will,  when  hungry,  also  make  movements  of 
the  head  favorable  to  the  finding  of  the  source  of  nourish- 
ment. There  is  also  in  strong  infants  early  evidence 
of  rudimentary  attempts  at  maintaining  equilibrium  of 
head,  and  a  little  later  of  body  also. 

The  expressive  mechanism  for  crying  is  well  developed 
from  the  first,  because  this  is  needed  to  call  the  parents 
to  relieve  unfavorable  conditions;  while  smiling  and 
laughing  do  not  appear  till  much  later,  because  such 
movements  are  of  little  biological  value. 

Starting  at  sudden  sounds,  especially  when  they  are 
accompanied  by  a  jar  (as  the  sound  of  the  slamming  of 
a  door),  is  very  marked.  This  is  perhaps  the  first 
evidence  of  a  general  instinctive  fear  of  strange  and 
strong  stimuli.  A  more  specialized  reaction  which  was 
perhaps  useful  in  an  earher  period  of  race  history  is 
shown  in  the  tendency,  beginning  in  the  first  month 
and  lasting  several  weeks,  of  shrinking  together  and 
clasping  as  if  afraid  of  falling,  when  lowered  suddenly. 
Sometimes  when  clothes  are  removed  so  that  there  is 
lack  of  their  supporting  contact  with  most  of  the  body, 
the  same  instinctive  fear  is  manifested. 

The  tendency  to  bring  the  hands  to  the  mouth,  so 
prominent  almost  from  the  first,  may  be  the  result  either 
of  the  habitual  inter-uterine  position,  or  of  an  instinct 
which  was  useful  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  race. 
The  tendency  is  certainly  very  helpful  to  the  child  in 
obtaining  touch  sensations,  since  objects  are  by  this 
movement  brought  to  the  mouth  for  closer  examination 
by  tongue  and  lips. 

Since  ability  to  use  the  sense  organs  is  useful  to  the 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       67 

child,  we  find  a  partially  developed  reflex  tendency  to 
turn  the  eyes  and  possibly  the  ears  into  the  most  favor- 
able position  for  use.  Some  weeks  or  months  of  time, 
and  possibly  some  experience,  are  necessary  before  any 
but  the  first  of  these  reflexes  are  perfect.  Before  the 
beginning  of  the  second  quarter,  however,  the  eyes 
close  at  a  threatened  blow,  move  together,  fixate,  and 
follow  moving  objects ;  while  a  little  later  there  is  an 
accurate  turning  of  the  head  toward  the  source  of  sound, 
and  also  a  marked  tendency  to  use  the  skin  of  lips, 
fingers,  and  toes  in  getting  sensations  of  touch. 

From  the  first,  the  infant  makes  numerous  spontaneous 
and  random  movements  of  almost  every  part  of  the  body, 
independently  of  external  stimuli.  These  movements, 
resulting  from  organic  conditions,  growth  changes,  and 
the  consequent  outflow  of  energy,  are  important  means 
of  developing  the  muscles  and  preparing  by  experi- 
ence for  the  voluntary  contraction  of  the  muscles  thus 
exercised. 

INCREASE    IN    COMPLEXITY    OF    MOVEMENT 

During  the  first  few  weeks  the  movements  of  an  infant 
seem  to  depend  more  upon  general  bodily  conditions 
than  upon  outward  stimulation  of  any  of  the  special 
senses,  and  the  movements  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
body  seem  to  have  little  relation  to  each  other.  Soon, 
however,  outward  and  special  stimuli  become  more 
effective,  so  that  crying  and  restless  movements,  due 
to  bodily  condition,  may  frequently  be  checked  by 
auditory,  tactual,  or  visual  stimulations,  such  as  singing, 
patting  the  child,  or  shaking  something  before  his  eyes. 

In  the  second  quarter,  many  combinations  of  move- 


6S  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

ment  take  place.  The  eyes  not  only  turn  toward  and 
follow  a  moving  object,  but  turn  toward  a  sound  or 
toward  a  portion  of  the  body  that  is  touched,  thus 
bringing  more  than  one  sense  into  action.  The  lips, 
hands,  and  often  the  feet  also,  not  only  move  when 
touched,  but  move  into  contact  with  objects  seen,  which 
are  then  tested  by  other  tactile  surfaces  and  perhaps 
by  eye  and  ear.  In  the  meantime,  the  first  reactions 
against  the  tipping  of  head  or  body  have  developed  so 
that  equilibrium  is  maintained  against  the  tendency  of 
head  and  body  to  move  out  of  balance.  Not  only  this, 
but  equilibrium  is  maintained  while  grasping,  and  head 
and  body  usually  move  with  the  hand  in  reaching  for 
an  object.  The  movements  of  different  parts  of  the 
body  are  therefore  no  longer  independent  of  each  other, 
but  very  closely  connected. 

In  this  and  the  next  quarter  a  new  kind  of  movement 
becomes  very  prominent.  <.  Random  and  meaningless 
movements  of  parts  change  to  those  repeated  rhythmic 
and  partially  coordinated  movements  of  various  muscle 
groups  which  we  designate  as  p lay.  ]^  Certain  movements 
of  limbs  or  vocal  organs  are  produced  over  and  over  for 
several  days,  then  a  new  one  is  practised  for  a  while. 
Various  combinations  of  movements  are  made,  and  the 
muscles  and  the  senses  are  thus  exercised  and  associ- 
ated in  countless  ways,  as  the  child  amuses  himself. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  first  year  not  only  are  move- 
ments previously  made,  repeated  in  play,  but  movements 
seen  and  sounds  heard  are  often  playfully  imitated  and 
repeated  over  and  over. 

The  process  of  combination  goes  still  further,  and  the 
child  begins  to  move  toward  things  by  crawling  or  other- 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       69 

wise,  or  to  stand,  holding  with  one  hand  and  reaching 
with  the  other,  and  at  about  a  year  to  maintain  equilib- 
rium while  standing  and  walking,  and  in  getting  up  and 
down  when  he  grasps  something  on  the  floor. 

Looked  at  in  a  purely  objective  way,  the  most  marked 
change  in  the  movements  of  a  child  during  the  first 
year  is,  therefore,  not  in  number,  but  in  complexity,  co- 
ordination, and  definiteness.  From  the  use  of  one  sense 
and  one  or  two  groups  of  muscles  at  a  time,  the  child 
has  progressed  to  the  combined  use  of  muscles  of  legs, 
body,  arms,  fingers,  head,  and  eyes,  in  getting  objects 
and  obtaining  visual,  tactual,  and  auditory  sensations  from 
them.  The  early  movements  were  unconnected  and  un- 
coordinated, and  ended  in  nothing  but  movement ;  while 
at  the  close  of  the  first  year  they  are  combined  and 
correlated  with  each  other,  and  end  in  the  changing  of 
the  position  of  the  child  or  of  some  object.  These  changes 
toward  more  complex  and  unified  movement  are  doubt- 
less preparatory  to,  and  correlated  with,  corresponding 
changes  in  the  conscious  states  of  the  child. 

EARLY    MENTAL    STATES 

"What  is  the  baby  thinking  about.'*"  is  one  of  the 
most  fascinating  and  puzzling  of  questions.  Sympathetic 
imagination  endows  him  with  a  thousand  adult  feelings 
and  ideas,  or  dimly  remembered  childish  states.  Yet 
no  one  can  represent  the  baby's  ideas  except  in  terms 
of  his  own  present  or  former  mental  states.  The  im- 
portant epoch  included  in  the  first  year  or  two  of  life, 
to  which  "the  memory  of  man  goeth  not  back,  cannot 
therefore  be  pictured  in  its  true  colors  by  the  most 
gifted  child  lover. 


70  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

The  scientist  is  almost  equally  impotent  in  attempting 
to  discover  and  describe  the  real  mental  states  of  an 
infant.  He  is  perhaps  strongest  on  the  negative  side  ;  for, 
reasoning  from  general  principles,  he  can  say  with  con- 
siderable assurance  what  is  not  in  the  baby's  mind,  just 
as  he  can  affirm  that  a  planet  without  atmosphere  has 
no  animal  life  like  our  own,  or  that  in  a  certain  age 
in  the  world's  history  there  could  have  been  no  animal 
life  of  a  certain  kind  because  it  was  too  hot  or  too  cold, 
or  because  there  was  an  absence  of  appropriate  food. 
When,  therefore,  the  psychologist  finds  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  cortex  of  the  brain  (which  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe  is  the  seat  of  consciousness)  is  not 
active  during  the  first  three  months  of  life,  and  when  he 
observes  that  nearly  everything  that  the  child  does  is 
sometimes  done  equally  well,  or  even  better,  when  asleep 
than  when  awake,  and  that  in  children  born  without  a 
brain,  the  movements  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  normal 
children,  and  when  he  remembers  that  the  child  cannot 
have  any  knowledge  gained  from  experience  that  the 
adult  has,  he  is  warranted  in  saying  that  there  is 
nothing  in  the  young  infant's  mind  sufficiently  like  what 
is  in  the  adult's  mind  to  warrant  the  use  of  the  same 
terms.  If  he  makes  any  positive  suggestion  as  to  the 
child's  mental  states,  he  will  say  that  if  there  is  any 
consciousness  at  first,  it  is  most  like,  yet  much  more 
indefinite  than,  the  vague  feelings,  almost  without  ideas, 
that  are  sometimes  experienced  by  adults  when  in  a 
drowsy  state. 

The  child  sleeps  most  of  the  time  at  first,  and  is  prob- 
ably conscious  of  only  the  more  intense  stimuli.  The 
field  of  consciousness,  soon  to  become  a  fairy  land  of 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       7 1 

new  experiences,  is  at  first  a  half-formed,  barren  desert, 
with  only  an  occasional  rock  of  bodily  pain  or  oasis  of 
comfort  clearly  discernible. 

Since  the  only  key  to  the  mind  of  the  young  child, 
who  cannot  speak  for  himself,  by  which  his  movements 
may  be  interpreted,  is  a  mental  state  like  his  own  at  the 
time  of  making  the  movements,  the  door  to  his  inner 
mental  states  is  forever  closed  to  adults.  To  us  every 
sensation  has  a  meaning ;  it  is  related  to  and  calls  up 
sensations  Hke  it  or  associated  with  it  in  past  experience. 
The  infant,  however,  has  no  past  experience,  and  even 
when  its  movements  are  significant,  the  various  sensa- 
tions are  not  related  to  each  other,  but  merely  each  to 
its  appropriate,  separate  reflex.  The  first  sound  heard 
carries  with  it  no  suggestion  of  sounds  of  its  class,  or  of 
an  object  to  be  seen  or  touched.  It  is  probably  only  a 
more  vivid  something  in  the  mild  chaos  of  organic  and 
movement  sensations. 

The  child  is  at  first  simply  a  wonderful  mechanism 
whose  parts  are  not  all  finished  or  connected,  beginning 
to  feel  and  become  conscious  of  what  it  does.  It  is 
distinctly  conscious  of  only  the  more  intense  or  newer 
things  that  it  does,  and  learns  how  things  are  done  only 
after  it  has  done  them  a  number  of  times.  Conscious- 
ness probably  has  no  influence  whatever  upon  Vv^hat  is 
done  for  several  months,  but  is  merely  an  imperfect 
report  of  what  is  being  done  and  has  been  done  —  a  log 
book  of  the  first  voyage  of  the  vesseLof  life,  in  which 
appear  only  the  regular  food  watches  and  the  unusual 
events  of  the  voyage. 

It  is  probable  that  there  is  very  little  unified  conscious- 
ness during  the  first  quarter ;  but  in  the  second  quarter. 


72  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

when  movement  becomes  more  complex,  so  that  the 
stimulations  of  one  sense  are  connected  with  those  of 
another,  consciousness  probably  becomes  unified  in  a 
Corresponding  degree,  and  every  experience  becomes 
associated  with  others  like  or  contiguous  to  it.  Every 
sensation  soon  has  a  background  of  general  bodily 
sensation  and  a  fringe  of  past  sensations.  As  con- 
sciousness thus  becomes  unified  and  related,  it  begins  to 
assume  its  rightful  place  as  general  director  of  affairs, 
and  chooses  that  certain  agreeable  experiences  shall  be 
continued  or  repeated,  and  a  little  later,  exercises  some 
influence  in  determining  how  this  shall  be  done. 

Thus  does  the  semi-conscious  and  utterly  helpless 
being  acquire  a  definite  and  unified  consciousness,  and 
gradually  take  possession  of  its  developing  self.  The 
functioning  of  reflex  and  instinctive  mechanisms  that 
are  perfect  at  birth,  and  of  other  mechanisms  after 
they  become  perfect,  has  little  influence  on  the  con- 
scious self.  The  processes  of  perfecting  7fiechanisms, 
developing  thefu  for  7iew  purposes,  and  combining  them 
171  various  ways,  are  the  chief  exciters  of  conscious 
activity,  and  the  means  by  which  the  me7ital  self  grows. 
Every  new  experience  illuminates  and  enlarges  the  field 
of  consciousness,  and  extends  the  control  of  the  growing 
self. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  VOLUNTARY  CONTROL 

In  the  acquisition  of  voluntary  control  there  are  most 
interesting  combinations  of  motor  and  mental  processes. 
To  understand  them  we  must  consider  the  ends  gained 
by  movements,  both  objectively  and  subjectively. 

Many,  but  not  all,  reflex  and  instinctive  movements 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   HUMAN    INFANT       73 

accomplish  definite  ends,  while  spontaneous  and  random 
movements  occasionally  do  so.  Every  voluntary  move- 
ment must  have  a  purpose  ;  but  the  fact  that  some  objec- 
tive end  is  gained,  does  not  make  it  voluntary.  To  be 
voluntary  there  must  be  some  idea  of  the  end  previous 
to  the  act  by  which  it  is  gained.  In  complex  volitions 
there  is  consciousness  of  several  ends,  or  several  means 
of  attaining  ends,  and  a  choice  as  to  which  shall  be 
secured  or  used. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  voluntary  efforts  can  be 
made  only  after  considerable  experience  in  non-volun- 
tary movements,  which  gives  a  basis  for  forecasting  the 
possible  and  probable  results  of  movements  in  response 
to  familiar  stimuli.  The  muscular  and  nervous  mechan- 
ism is,  in  part,  the  same,  whether  a  motion  is  voluntary 
or  involuntary ;  but  in  one  case  the  results  are  antici- 
pated and  perhaps  chosen  from  among  several  possibili- 
ties, while  in  the  other  they  are  not.  Whether  will  is 
an  actual  force  in  consciousness  or  only  the  resultant  of 
the  various  tendencies  to  action,  it  is  at  any  rate  a  new 
state  of  consciousness,  and  an  utterly  impossible  one  to 
a  young  child  whose  motions  consist  only  of  separate 
random  and  reflex  movements. 

The  first  anticipation  of  the  results  of  movements 
probably  arises  in  connection  with  movements  of  the 
head  in  search  of  the  nipple,  and  the  next,  in  turning 
the  eyes  toward  the  source  of  a  sound.  Such  move- 
ments, however,  never  lead  to  the  more  complex  acts  of 
voluntary  control,  as  do  those  of  the  Hmbs.  They  are 
so  simple  and  reflex  in  character  that  unless  the 
process  is  interfered  with  or  delayed,  there  is  little 
consciousness  of  any  kind,  and  certainly  no  choice  of 


74  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

movement  or  of  end.  The  hand,  however,  can  move  in 
so  many  ways,  each  differing  in  character  and  difficulty, 
and  for  so  many  different  ends,  that  consciousness  of 
hand  movements  readily  becomes  intense,  anticipatory, 
directive,  effortful,  selective,  and  hence  voluntary.  The 
acquiring  of  voluntary  control  of  the  hand  is  therefore 
a  good  type  of  all  volitional  progress.  The  way  in 
which  this  takes  place  may  best  be  indicated  b}^  notes 
on  how  my  own  little  girl  learned  to  grasp  objects. 

"  Sixty-first  day,  noticed  her  own  hand  and  looked  at  it 
for  a  number  of  seconds.  Seventy-tkh'd  day,  put  hand 
in  her  mother's  mouth  several  times,  her  eyes  being  fixed 
on  her  mother's  face,  and  her  other  hand  nearly  still. 
Her  hand  often  went  higher  or  lower  or  to  one  side,  but 
the  movement  was  successful  and  seemed  to  be  called 
forth  by  the  object  in  that  position.  Eightyfirst  day, 
held  a  book  placed  in  her  hands  and  looked  at  it  for 
some  time.  One  hundred  and  eleventh  day,  movements 
of  scratching  and  pulling  at  things  her  hands  touched 
became  frequent,  and  there  were  some  instances  of  reach- 
ing toward  and  scratching  at  objects,  such  as  a  magazine 
held  before  her.  Also  scratched  at  table-cloth  and  at  a 
plate,  and  when  her  hand  slipped  off  and  came  to  her 
mouth,  she  uttered  a  dissatisfied  grunt  as  if  disappointed 
in  not  getting  what  she  expected  in  the  way  of  tactile 
sensation  on  the  lips. 

"  When  lying  on  a  lounge,  has  often  got  her  hand 
against  a  curtain,  grasped  and  shaken  it  back  and 
forth  for  a  long  time.  One  hundred  a7id  tiuelfth  day, 
got  her  fingers  caught  in  a  ribbon  tied  around  the  cur- 
tain and  jerked  at  it  till  it  came  loose,  and  finally  got 
it  in  her  mouth.     Later  in  the  day  drew  her  father's 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       75 

thumb  into  her  mouth.  He  removed  it,  and  she  suc- 
ceeded several  times  in  getting  hold  of  it  and  bringing 
it  to  her  mouth.  When  not  successful,  gave  a  fretful 
cry,  but  renewed  the  effort.  Sometimes  her  hand 
slipped  over  the  thumb  and  came  into  her  mouth, 
and  she  seemed  disappointed  and  tried  again.  This 
seemed  like  a  clear  case  of  voluntary  movement,  though 
of  the  simplest  kind,  for  there  was  probably  no  repre- 
sentation of  the  end  to  produce  expectation  of  a  certain 
tactile  sensation  and  cause  signs  of  disappointment  and 
renewed  effort  when  she  got  a  different  sensation. 

**  One  hundred  and  thirtee7ith  day,  repeatedly  put  her 
father's  finger  in  her  mouth,  having  no  difficulty  in  doing 
so  after  she  got  hold  of  it.  She  was  not,  however,  always 
successful  in  getting  hold  of  it,  sometimes  one  or  two 
fingers  clasped  it  and  sometimes  all  sHpped  past.  One 
hundred  afid  fourteenth  day,  reached  the  finger  several 
times  without  trying  to  put  it  in  her  mouth.  One  hun- 
dred and  ninetee7ith  day,  carried  watch  to  her  mouth  a 
number  of  times,  used  both  hands  most  of  the  time, 
sometimes  merely  getting  them  behind  the  watch  and 
pushing  it,  at  other  times  clasping  it  with  one  or  more 
fingers.  The  arms  are  controlled,  but  the  fingers  show 
little  more  than  the  original  reflex.  Head  usually  moved 
toward  objects  before  and  while  reaching  for  them. 

''One  htmdred  and  twenty-7iinth  day,  control  of 
fingers  not  perceptibly  better.  She  uses  both  hands 
when  object  is  directly  in  front,  and  the  nearest  hand 
when  it  is  on  one  side.  Reached  for  watch  four  or 
five  inches  beyond  reach,  but  not  as  certain  to  try  as 
when  closer.  Slipped  her  fingers  along  her  mother's 
when  her  own  instead  of  her  mother's  fingers  touched 


76  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

her  lips.  This  may  have  been  accidentally  successful, 
but  it  showed  dissatisfaction  in  not  getting  the  desired 
sensation.  One  Juifidred  and  thirty-second  day,  seemed 
to  be  reaching  behind  the  mirror  for  the  face.  One 
hundred  and  thirty-fourth  day,  can  move  her  hands 
with  considerable  accuracy  and  rapidity  within  a  small 
space  directly  in  front  of  her,  and  in  that  space  gen- 
erally uses  both  hands.  When  the  object  is  on  one 
side,  she  generally  uses  the  hand  on  that  side.  Has 
little  control  in  reaching  up  high  or  down  low. 

"  One  hundred  and  fifty -first  day,  tries  to  grasp  nearly 
everything  within  reach,  and  seems  to  be  more  accurate 
when  she  does  it  very  quickly  than  when  she  reaches 
slowly.  One  hundred  and  fifty-third  day,  spent  some 
time  in  catching  a  swinging  watch  and  letting  it  go. 
Reached  for  it  only  when  it  was  near,  and  naturally 
was  more  frequently  successful  when  it  was  swinging 
toward  her  than  when  it  was  swinging  out.  One  Jiun- 
dred  and  sixty-eighth  day,  has  now  sufficient  control  of 
her  movements  so  that  toys  give  more  pleasure  than 
vexation.  One  hundred  and  seventy -first  day,  persist- 
ently reached  for  a  red  bow,  though  it  was  nearly  or 
quite  hidden  from  view  part  of  the  time.  One  hu7idred 
and  seventy-fifth  day,  does  not  keep  things  in  her  mouth 
so  much,  and  apparently  shakes  the  rattle  not  simply  for 
the  movement,  but  also  for  the  sound,  though  this  is  not 
certain.     Often  grasps  things  very  quickly. 

"  One  hundred  and  eighty-second  day,  can  now  grasp 
and  hold  in  one  hand  a  ball  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 
Two  hundred  and  second  day,  has  been  able  to  take  a 
handkerchief  off  her  head  for  some  time,  and  to-day  suc- 
ceeded a  number  of  times  in  taking  my  stiff  hat  off  her 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       'J'J 

head,  having  difficulty  only  when  she  took  hold  too  far 
forward  and  pulled  it  against  the  back  of  her  head  before 
getting  it  high  enough.  Two  Jumdred  and  thirteenth 
day,  if  anything  is  held  just  out  of  reach  in  front  or 
over  her  head,  she  will  try  one  hand  awhile,  then  the  other, 
then  give  a  discontented  cry  and  try  again.  Two  Jmn- 
dred  and  fourteenth  day,  took  hold  of  my  mustache  and 
drew  my  mouth  down  to  hers,  but  drew  back  when  she 
felt  the  prick  of  the  mustache.  This  was  repeated  sev- 
eral times,  but  the  last  time  she  did  not  bring  my  mouth 
down  quite  close  to  hers.  Two  hundred  and  fifteenth 
day,  pulled  my  mouth  down  toward  hers,  but  not  closer 
than  three  inches. 

'*  Two  hundred  and  seventeenth  day,  looked  intently 
at  a  bell  as  she  struck  it  repeatedly,  evidently  associating 
sight,  sound,  and  motion.  Two  hundred  and  thirty- 
fourth  day,  reached  with  one  hand,  then  the  other,  a 
dozen  times  for  toys  held  just  up  out  of  reach  before 
stopping  to  protest  angrily.  Tzvo  hundred  and  thirty- 
sixth  day,  reaches  for  tassels  on  her  carriage,  when  she 
cannot  see  them,  and  sometimes  cries  when  some  one 
approaches  to  remove  them  as  has  been  done  before." 

Summing!  up  these  facts,  it  is  clear  that  in  obtain- 
ing voluntary  control  of  the  hand  in  grasping,  various 
non-voluntary  movements  are  grouped  together  and 
repeated  until  they  can  readily  be  continued  in  various 
ways.  These  combinations  are  produced  at  first  in 
response  to  the  stimulus  of  some  object  which  calls 
forth  various  movements,  one  of  which  has  desirable 
results.  At  first  the  effective  stimulus  is  some  visual 
object,  and  the  desired  result  a  tactile  sensation  on  the 
lips.     Soon  representation  of  the  result  is  sufficiently 


y%  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

clear  to  produce  disappointment  when  it  is  not  obtained, 
and  the  attempt  is  repeated.  The  act  then  has  the 
essential  characteristics  of  a  voluntary  movement.  This 
usually  occurs  between  four  and  five  months,  while  a 
month  or  two  later  there  is  shown  the  more  complex 
voluntary  state  of  representing  the  exciting  stimulus,  as 
well  as  the  end  to  be  secured,  as  when  the  child  reaches 
for  what  is  not  in  sight.  At  about  the  same  time  the 
end  to  be  gained  is  often  changed  to  tactile  sensations  on 
the  hand  instead  of  on  the  lips,  or  to  muscular  sensations 
as  the  hand  is  moved,  or  auditory  sensations  as  the  ob- 
ject is  made  to  strike  something  else.  When  a  move- 
ment is  stopped  because  the  consequence  has  proved 
disagreeable  (as  when  the  mustache  was  brought  to  the 
lips),  we  have  a  further  complication  of  desired  move- 
ment and  undesirable  consequence. 

The  muscles  first  brought  under  control  are  the  larger 
ones  of  the  whole  arm,  while  the  space  in  which  control 
is  first  exercised  is  directly  in  front  and  near  the  level 
of  the  mouth. 

Other  movements  than  those  of  the  hand  come  under 
voluntary  control  in  a  similar  way ;  first  the  eyes  and 
head  in  turning  toward  sights  and  sounds,  then  the  body 
in  sitting,  then  the  hands  in  grasping,  and  finally  near 
the  close  of  the  first  year,  the  legs  in  creeping,  standing, 
and  walking,  and  the  vocal  organs  in  repeating  sounds. 
The  first  of  these  is  so  largely  provided  for  by  inherited 
mechanisms  that  the  movements  soon  come  under  the 
possible  control  of  consciousness,  while  the  last  involves 
the  coordination  of  so  many  simpler  non-voluntary  move- 
ments that  the  whole  series  is  often  looked  upon  as 
acquired  by  experience. 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       79 


LEARNING   TO    WALK 

The  tendency  to  locomotion,  though  primarily  devel- 
oped in  the  race  as  a  means  of  nutrition  and  escape,  is 
fostered  in  the  individual  child  more  by  the  instinct  of 
curiosity  or  the  desire  for  the  sensations  to  be  obtained 
by  coming  in  contact  with  various  objects  than  by  the 
desire  for  food  and  escape. 

The  fact  that  children  are  a  long  while  learning  to 
walk,  and  that  various  movements  such  as  rolling,  crawl- 
ing on  stomach,  or  on  hands  and  feet,  hitching  along  in 
some  form  of  sitting  position,  pushing  one's  self  back- 
ward, or  rapid  running  from  one  support  to  another, 
may  be  used  as  means  of  approaching  objects,  before 
the  child  attempts  ordinary  walking,  seems  to  indicate 
that  there  is  in  human  beings  no  instinctive  mechanism 
for  walking  as  there  is  in  the  case  of  chickens  or  pigs, 
which  can  walk  almost  perfectly  from  the  first. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  the  walking  reflex 
(the  tendency  to  move  one  foot  forward  when  the  other 
touches  the  floor)  develops  in  the  first  or  second  quarter, 
and  that  the  rudimentary  tendency  to  maintain  equilibrium 
appears  even  earlier,  shows  that  part  of  the  mechanism 
of  walking  is  in  working  order  at  an  early  date.  Walk- 
ing becomes  possible  when  its  reflex  elements  can  be 
properly  combined.  Such  an  instance  as  the  following 
shows  that  the  whole  mechanism  for  walking  may  be 
developed  and  its  parts  connected  without  experience, 
and  that  consciousness  hinders  rather  than  helps,  all  of 
which  indicates  that  walking  in  children  is  more  instinc- 
tive than  is  usually  supposed. 


80  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

The  instance  is  thus  described  by  the  father,  Super- 
intendent Hall  of  North  Adams,  Mass. 

'*  In  reply  to  yours  of  March  25th,  I  give  you  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  how  my  little  daughter  Katherine 
learned  to  walk.  She  was  the  youngest  of  a  family  of 
five.  The  other  children  had  learned  to  walk  soon  after 
they  were  a  year  old,  and  in  the  normal  fashion  —  by 
being  encouraged  to  put  forth  a  series  of  efforts  until 
they  were  able  to  go  alone.  Katherine  was  a  normal 
child  in  other  respects,  bright,  active,  and  healthy,  yet 
unable  to  walk  a  step  when  she  was  seventeen  months 
old.  Of  course  we  were  anxious,  fearing  the  cause  of 
this  inefficiency  might  be  physical,  especially  as  she 
persisted  in  crawHng  and  absolutely  refused  to  try  to 
help  herself  under  the  encouragement  of  any  assistance. 

"  At  last  we  referred  the  matter  to  a  physician  who 
said  :  '  It  is  a  peculiar  case,  and  I  can  hardly  tell  whether 
the  difficulty  is  physical  or  mental.  If  there  is  no  im- 
provement in  a  short  time,  call  me  again.'  Shortly 
afterward  I  came  home  one  day  at  noon,  and  placing 
my  cuffs  on  a  table  in  the  sitting  room  threw  myself  on 
a  lounge  to  rest.  Katherine  happened  to  notice  the  cuffs 
from  where  she  sat  on  the  floor,  and  crawling  across 
the  room  pulled  herself  up  by  one  leg  of  the  table,  and 
reaching  out  with  one  hand,  while  she  held  on  to  the 
table  with  the  other,  took  a  cuff  off  from  the  table 
and  slipped  it  on  over  her  wrist.  Of  course  to  do  this 
she  had  to  stand  alone.  I  noticed  it  at  once  and  was 
surprised  when  she  reached  out  her  other  hand  for  the 
other  cuff  and  slipped  that  on,  and  then  stood  looking 
in  a  very  interested  way  at  the  cuffs  on  both  wrists. 
Then,  to  our  great  surprise,  she  turned  toward  me  with 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT        8 1 

a  very  pleased  expression  on  her  face  and  walked  as 
confidently  and  easily  as  any  child  could.  Not  only 
this,  but  she  immediately  ran  across  the  room,  through 
another  room^  and  around  through  the  hallway,  not 
simply  walking,  but  running  as  rapidly  as  a  child  four 
or  five  years  of  age  would.  What  surprised  us  most 
was  that  she  did  not  seem  to  be  wearied  by  her  effort 
at  all. 

"We  allowed  her  to  keep  the  cuffs  on  for  ten  minutes 
or  more,  and  she  was  on  her  feet  all  the  time.  At  last 
she  sat  down  a  moment,  rested,  and  then,  strange  to 
say,  got  up  on  both  feet  without  assistance,  and  com- 
menced to  run  around  the  room  again.  As  an  experi- 
ment I  took  the  cuffs  off,  and  she  was  as  unwilling  to  try 
to  walk  as  before.  We  could  not  possibly  induce  her  to 
take  a  single  step  without  the  cuffs.  When,  however, 
we  allowed  her  to  put  them  on,  she  seemed  to  be  greatly 
delighted  and  walked  and  ran  as  before.  The  result 
was  that  I  gave  her  an  old  pair  of  cuffs  and  allowed 
her  to  wear  them  for  two  days.  This  was  the  only 
way  we  could  keep  her  from  crawling.  After  that 
time  she  seemed  to  be  able  to  get  along  without  the 
cuffs,  and  has  not  crawled  any  since." 

Since  publishing  this  account  other  similar  cases  have 
been  reported  to  me. 

MODES    OF    LEARNING 

The  child  comes  into  the  world  not  only  with  reflex 
and  instinctive  tendencies  to  special  movements,  but 
also  to  general  movements.  This  is  shown  in  the  ten- 
dency to  spontaneously  exercise  all  of  his  muscles.  He 
also  tends  to  move  every  part  of  the  body  in  response 

Q 


82  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

to  any  strong  stimulus.  Young  babies  twist  and  turn 
and  call  into  action  nearly  all  of  their  muscles.  When 
a  little  older,  a  bright  object  causes  them  to  throw  up 
hands,  feet,  and  head,  and  perhaps  to  quiver  with  fear 
or  spring  up  and  down  in  delight. 

A  large  proportion  of  these  general  or  spontaneous 
movements  are  useless,  but  some  of  them,  especially 
when  combined  with  the  special  instinctive  or  reflex 
movements,  secure  favorable  results.  Such  move- 
ments, according  to  a  fundamental  principle  of  organic 
life,  are  selected  (not  necessarily  consciously,  but  in- 
evitably as  the  plant  grows  toward  the  light)  for  repe- 
tition. For  example,  a  little  girl  who  threw  up  her 
feet  in  disgust  when  the  milk  ceased  to  flow,  happened 
to  tip  the  bottle  so  that  it  flowed.  This  was  repeated 
several  times;  after  that  for  several  months  she  used 
her  leg  to  hold  the  bottle.  Later  the  hand  was  found 
to  be  more  convenient  for  the  purpose,  and  the  habit 
was  dropped.  In  similar  ways  mechanisms  for  secur- 
ing various  ends  are  developed,  and  the  will  thus  soon 
has  a  chance  to  choose  ends  or  means  of  attainment, 
or  both. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  mechanisms  for  obtaining 
many  ends  are  thus  developed,  the  child  does  not  know 
how  to  use  them,  and  must  learn  how.  He  usually 
needs  also  to  effect  some  modification,  refinement,  or 
new  connection  of  mechanisms  of  movement  in  order 
to  gain  his  conscious  ends  in  the  new  situations  which 
he  constantly  meets.  He  may  have  clearly  in  mind  the 
end  of  getting  a  red  ball  suspended  near  him;  but  if 
it  is  up  high,  or  far  to  one  side,  he  may  miss  it  a 
number  of  times  before  he  succeeds  in  getting  hold  of 


EARLY  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       83 

it.  With  further  experience  he  can  reach  it  accurately 
the  first  time.  If,  however,  the  ball  is  placed  beyond 
his  reach,  he  must  keep  trying  till  he  finds  some  mode 
of  approaching  it,  such  as  rolling  or  creeping  toward  it. 

In  all  such  instances  the  marked  feature  of  the  child's 
attempts  is  the  large  number  of  useless  and  inaccurate 
movements  made  before  success  is  attained  and  expert- 
ness  gained.  It  is,  therefore,  very  properly  called  the 
"trial  and  success  method"  of  learning.  The  first 
success  being  determined  largely  by  chance,  the  more 
movements  that  are  made  the  sooner  is  the  right  one 
likely  to  occur. 

Of  course  the  dice  are  always  loaded  to  some  extent 
by  inheritance  and  acquired  coordinations  of  sensations 
and  movements,  hence  success  is  attained  much  sooner 
than  it  would  be  if  it  were  a  matter  of  pure  chance  as 
to  which  of  the  more  than  four  hundred  muscles  should 
contract,  and  in  what  order  and  degree. 

Another  way  by  which  mechanisms  for  obtaining 
ends  are  developed  is  by  imitation.  When  a  child  sees 
an  interesting  movement  or  hears  an  interesting  sound, 
he  has  not  only  a  tendency  to  move  all  his  muscles,  but 
a  stronger  special  tendency  to  move  the  muscles  neces- 
sary to  reproduce  the  perceived  movement  or  sound. 
In  this  way  he  soon  perfects  the  mechanism  for  making 
many  movements  that  are  useful  to  others,  and  which 
will  be  useful  to  him  some  day.  Some  children  early 
learn  all  the  sounds  of  the  language  in  this  way,  later 
using  the  ability  thus  acquired  in  uttering  words  as  a 
means  of  expressing  their  wants. 

In  a  large  number  of  instances  the  child  sees  others 
getting  what  he  wishes  to  get,  and  by  observing  their 


84  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

movements  his  own  are  modified  in  the  direction  of  the 
movements  necessary  to  success.  Imitation  is  therefore 
especially  valuable  in  complex  acts  involving  the  use  of 
several  mechanisms  which  have  never  been  used  together 
in  the  required  way.  Almost  all  kinds  of  games  and 
occupations  may  be  learned  by  this  method. 

There  is  still  another  and  higher  method  of  learning — 
that  of  learning  by  means  of  the  tenders tanding  or 
reason.  In  its  simplest  form  this  means  of  learning 
merely  supplements  the  other  methods.  By  the  "  trial 
and  success  method,"  for  example,  a  young  and  active 
cat  gets  the  door  of  its  cage  open  sooner  than  an  older 
and  less  active  one ;  but  the  older  cat  drops  useless 
movements  much  quicker  in  subsequent  experience,  and 
therefore  sooner  learns  to  open  the  cage  by  the  one 
necessary  movement.  In  the  older  cat  conscious  in- 
telligence probably  aids  in  selecting  and  "  stamping  in  " 
the  right  movement.  In  a  similar  way  the  process  of 
learning  by  imitation  may  be  hastened  by  conscious 
selection  of  the  portions  of  an  act  necessary  to  success, 
and  the  proper  modification  of  them  to  suit  the  powers 
of  the  learner.  In  its  higher  forms  the  understanding 
may  be  used  in  learning  to  do  entirely  new  things,  by 
selecting  from  various  observations  and  past  experiences 
the  elementary  acts  required,  and  combining  them  in 
the  proper  way.  This  mode  of  learning  is  in  its  highest 
manifestations  really  a  kind  of  discovery,  invention,  or 
reasoning. 

These  three  methods  of  learning  are  used  by  both 
adults  and  children  whenever  ends  are  to  be  gained  by 
new  means.  The  "  trial  and  success  method  "  is  espe- 
cially useful  in  perfecting  the  simpler  mechanisms  of 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  HUMAN   INFANT       85 

actions,  the  ''imitation  method,"  in  learning  the  simpler 
processes,  or,  in  other  words,  in  connecting  elementary 
movements  with  each  other  ;  while  the  method  of  "  under- 
standing or  reasoning"  is  best  in  learning  to  perform 
complex  acts  or  in  coordinating  several  processes  for 
the  accompHshment  of  one  end.  In  learning  to  touch  a 
point  accurately  the  "trial  and  success  method"  is  best, 
in  learning  to  knit,  the  ''imitation  method,'  and  in  learn- 
ing to  play  chess,  the  "understanding  method,"  though 
each  method  may  be  supplemented  by  one  or  both  of 
the  other  methods. 

Animals  and  young  babies  learn  almost  wholly  by 
the  "trial  and  success  method,"  and  by  unconscious 
imitation,  young  children  by  more  or  less  conscious  imi- 
tation, and  adults  by  understanding.  This  is  partly 
because  the  things  children  are  learning  are,  as  a  rule, 
of  a  different  kind  from  those  that  adults  are  learning, 
and  partly  because  the  adult's  mind  is  better  suited  to 
learning  by  means  of  ideas.  It  is  absurd  to  have  adults 
try  to  learn  acts  of  manual  skill,  such  as  bicycle  riding, 
by  the  method  of  understanding,  and  simply  outrageous 
to  depend  upon  such  methods  in  teaching  children  to 
write  and  draw. 

Conscious  knowledge  of  the  exact  movements  in- 
volved in  complex  acts  is  of  less  significance  than  is 
usually  thought.  It  is  generally  recognized  that  there 
is  little  or  no  consciousness  of  the  details  of  familiar 
acts  like  walking,  writing,  catching  a  ball,  etc.,  but  it  is 
usually  supposed  that  we  had  to  become  conscious  of 
all  the  details  when  we  learned  the  movements.  This 
is  a  mistake,  however,  for  many  things  are  learned  with 
little  or  no  consciousness  of  the  elementary  movements 


86  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

involved.  This  is  especially  true  of  movements  learned 
when  young.  All  movements  largely  reflex  and  instinc- 
tive in  character,  and  most  of  the  elements  of  movements 
gained  by  the  "trial  and  success  method  "  and  by  imita- 
tion have  never  been  known  as  means  to  ends,  except 
when  more  than  one  way  of  gaining  an  end  is  suggested 
at  the  same  time.  Children,  and  even  adults,  are  often 
checked  rather  than  aided  in  their  efforts  to  gain  an 
end,  by  attempting  to  teach  them  exactly  what  motions 
they  must  make  in  order  to  succeed.  In  general,  con- 
sciotcs  knowledge  and  understanding  have  been  given 
too  prominent  a  place  in  the  early  stages  of  manual 
training,  especially  in  the  case  of  children. 

RELATION    OF    INSTINCTS    TO    MENTAL    ACTIVITIES 

The  chief  difference  between  a  man  and  a  photo- 
graphic plate  is  that  man  has  active  instincts  which 
impel  him  to  do  something  else  besides  receive  and 
reproduce  impressions.  Of  course  he  responds  to  a  much 
greater  variety  of  stimuli ;  but  the  chief  point  is  that  he 
is  not  passive,  but  reaches  out  into  the  world  for  stimuli 
and  responds  to  them  in  many  self-determinate  ways. 

The  chief  differences  in  a  human  being  at  different 
stages  of  development  are  due  not  merely  to  experience, 
but  to  different  instincts  which  are  present  or  prominent 
at  different  periods  of  life. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  impulsive  movements  are 
the  basis  of  voluntary  control,  since  by  no  possibility 
can  the  mind  know  how  to  make  a  motion  or  what  will 
be  the  result  until  the  motion  has  been  made  and  the 
result  experienced.  The  different  ways  in  which  a  child 
responds  to  the  various  stimuli  that  he   receives   are 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       Sj 

important  means  of  distinguishing  one  sensation  from 
another,  and  the  chief  means  of  associating  them  in  cer- 
tain ways,  hence  our  intellectual  life  is  based  ultimately 
upon  our  reflex  and  instinctive  movements.  The  emo- 
tions of  a  child  also  depend  upon  the  ways  in  which  he 
reacts  to  various  objects,  the  modes  of  expression  used, 
and  the  internal  bodily  changes  that  occur.  His  emotions 
are  therefore  largely  the  consciousness  of  his  own  re- 
actions to  his  surroundings.  It  is  just  as  impossible  to 
experience  an  emotion  previous  to  its  corresponding 
instinctive  reaction  as  it  is  to  voluntarily  make  a 
particular  movement  that  has  never  before  been  made. 
Nothing  surprises  us  so  much  as  new  emotions  that 
suddenly  come  into  our  lives,  as  novelists  have  often 
shown  in  one  sphere  of  instinctive  development. 

In  the  higher  forms  of  action,  involving  not  merely 
control  of  movement  but  complex  ideas  and  feelings, 
emotions  seem  to  be  the  conscious  determinants  of 
action.  It  is  really  instinct  and  habits,  however,  that 
determine  what  feelings  shall  be  experienced  under 
present  conditions  and  that  render  possible  the  pictur- 
ing of  the  feelings  that  may  be  experienced  through 
the  proposed  actions. 

Our  whole  mental  Hfe,  intellectual,  emotional,  and 
volitional,  is  developed  from  our  instincts.  All  activities 
of  conscious  life  have  for  their  root,  unconscious,  blind, 
instinctive  tendencies.  The  silking  of  growing  corn  is 
not  more  entirely  determined  by  the  laws  of  organic 
development  than  is  the  emotion  of  love  in  the  youth, 
by  the  emergence  of  a  new  instinct  from  the  depths  of 
his  unconscious  nature. 

In  our  further  study  of  instincts  and  their  develop- 


88  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

ment,  therefore,  we  are  really  studying  the  fundamental 
yet  unrecognized  basis  of  all  intellectual,  emotional,  and 
volitional  development. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Report  observations  or  printed  records  of  the  early  reflex  and 
instinctive  movements  of  infants. 

2.  Describe  instances  of  an  infant  of  less  than  a  year,  using  many 
parts  of  the  body  in  a  coordinate  way  for  a  single  end. 

3.  Mention  several  specific  movements  of  an  infant  less  than  six 
months  old,  and  give  reasons  for  thinking  them  either  unconscious, 
conscious,  or  voluntary. 

4.  Report  early  instances  of  volition  observed  by  yourself  or 
found  in  reading. 

5.  Report  from  observation,  hearsay,  or  reading  as  fully  as  you 
can  how  one  child  learned  to  walk. 

6.  Report  from  observation  or  reading,  instances  of  animals 
learning  by  the  "  trial  and  success  method." 

7.  Give  illustrations  of  the  three  methods  of  learning  in  the  case 
of  persons.  Name  two  or  three  things  that  may  best  be  learned  by  the 
''  trial  and  success  method,"  by  the  "  imitation  method,"  and  by  the 
"  method  of  understanding,"  indicating  in  each  case  whether  the  age 
of  the  person  makes  any  difference  as  to  the  prominence  of  the  pre- 
ferred method. 

8.  By  which  method  should  children  learn  to  sing  ? 

9.  May  we  expect  a  child  to  know  how  to  control  a  new  feeling  ? 
Why? 

10.  Should  we  strive  to  control  a  child's  actions  by  his  feelings  or 
his  feelings  by  his  actions  ?     Why  ? 

11.  Is  it  better  to  do  a  kind  act  for  a  child  or  let  him  do  one  for 
you  ?    Why  ? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  infant  development,  read  Preyer,  Moore, 
Shinn,  Tracy,  Compayre,  Vol.  I,  and  the  following  articles: 
G.  S.  Hall,  Fed.  Sent.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  127-138;  Mrs.  W.  S.  Hall, 
Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  330-342,  45M73j  522-537?  586-608 ; 
Darwin,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LVII,  pp.  197-205. 


EARLY   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   HUMAN   INFANT       89 

On  the  development  of  voluntary  control  and  learning  to  walk,  see 
Spence,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  444;  Kirkpatrick,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  275-281  ;  Baldwin,  Science,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  113, 
or  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  XLIV,  p.  606,  and  Science,  Vol.  XXII, 
p.  286,  or  Mental  Development,  Vol.  I,  pp.  47-103,  367-430; 
Dexter,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  81-91  ;  Judd,  Gefietic  Psy- 
chology, chap,  vi:  Trettein.  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  1-57; 
Compayre,  Vol.  II.  chap.  iv. 

On  methods  of  learning,  see  Thorndike,  Hitman  Nature  Chib,  chap, 
iii,  or  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LV,  pp.  480-490. 

On  relation  of  instincts  and  emotions,  see  James,  Psychology,  chapter 
on  •'  Emotions,"  and  Ribot,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  chap, 
vii;  Baldwin,  Vol.  II,  pp.  185-220. 


CHAPTER   VI 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   INDIVIDUALISTIC   INSTINCT 

STRENGTH    OF    THE    INSTINCT 

The  usages  of  polite  society  all  tend  to  suppress  and 
cover  up  this  instinct,  but  it  remains  as  a  powerful 
underlying  force,  directing  the  feelings,  thoughts,  and 
actions  of  men  and  women.  In  times  of  excitement  it 
bursts  into  view  in  a  most  surprising  way.  In  a 
moment,  a  company  of  courteous  ladies  and  gentlemen, 
apparently  intent  only  on  giving  each  other  pleasure, 
may  be  transformed  into  a  pack  of  wild  beasts,  strug- 
gling and  trampling  under  foot  their  helpless  com- 
panions in  the  effort  to  escape  from  a  burning  building. 

Even  when  reflective  consciousness  has  attained  to 
the  view  that  life  is  not  worth  living,  and  decides  upon 
suicide,  a  sudden  change  in  conditions  will  arouse  the 
all-powerful  instinct  to  live,  and  the  individual  then 
struggles  for  life  as  frantically  as  if  it  were  the  most 
desirable  of  all  things.  For  example,  a  Frenchman 
who  was  on  his  way  to  drown  himself,  promptly  climbed 
a  lamp  post  and  clung  to  it  with  desperate  energy 
when  death  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  tiger  escaped 
from  his  cage.  In  a  similar  way,  a  young  lady  wading 
into  Lake  Michigan  to  drown  herself  avoided  destruc- 
tion by  running  to  shore  when  threatened  with  being 
shot  if  she   did  not  do  so.      Each  had  suppressed  in 

91 


92  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

one  form  only  the  instinctive  tendency  to  avoid  death, 
hence  impending  destruction  in  another  form  produced 
the  usual  instinctive  reaction. 

So  strong  is  the  self-preservative  instinct  that  few 
sane  persons  commit  suicide.  It  is  also  very  difficult 
for  any  one  to  voluntarily  injure  himself.  Considerable 
determination  is  necessary  to  prick  one's  own  finger  in 
order  to  get  blood  for  examination  under  a  microscope. 
It  is  also  almost  impossible  to  refrain  from  instinctive 
movements  when  injury  seems  to  be  threatened.  The 
v^man  who  offered  a  prize  to  any  one  who  would  hold  his 
•finger  against  a  glass  without  flinching,  while  a  rattle- 
snake struck  at  it  from  the  other  side  was  quite  safe  in 
doing  so.  In  all  sudden  emergencies,  where  blind 
instinct  rather  than  reason  controls,  action  is  nearly 
always  governed  by  the  individualistic  instinct. 

In  deliberate  action  other  instincts  may  temporarily 
attain  ascendency  in  consciousness,  yet  none  of  them, 
as  a  rule,  maintain  their  prominence  for  long  periods  of 
time.  Many  cooperative  and  communistic  experiments 
have  failed  because  they  were  opposed  to  the  all-power- 
ful individualistic  instincts.  Cooperative  institutions, 
which  appeal  to  other  instincts  and  to  the  individual- 
istic also  without  opposing  the  one  to  the  other,  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  grand  successes. 

PROMINENCE    IN   THE    YOUNG 

The  instinct  of  self-preservation  is  not  only  the  oldest 
instinct,  but  one  that  has  been  most  uniformly  useful  to 
all  species  from  the  earHest  beginnings  of  animal  life, 
hence  we  should  expect  it  to  be  strong  in  the  young 
child.     There  is,  however,  a  still  more  important  reason 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT      93 

for  expecting  it  to  be  strong  in  the  young  of  all  animals, 
including  man,  viz.  because  it  is  the  only  instinct  that 
can  be  of  any  use  in  this  stage  of  early  helplessness. 
Any  tendency  on  the  part  of  a  young  animal  or  child 
to  act  for  the  good  of  any  other  being  than  itself  would 
be  futile,  and  in  many  cases  injurious  to  itself  and  indi- 
rectly to  its  species,  hence  the  individualistic  instinct 
77mst  be  dominant  in  the  young  of  all  species  that 
survive. 

The  dominance  of  this  instinct  in  the  child  is  due, 
not  so  much  to  its  greater  intensity  in  childhood  as 
to  the  fact  that  he  has  neither  the  power  nor  the 
tendency  to  use  any  other  instinct  (except  the  social 
and  adaptive,  and  these  only  for  his  own  advantage). 
When  older,  other  instincts  develop  in  a  form  that  make 
it  possible  to  act  for  the  good  of  others.  The  individual- 
istic instinct  is  then  less  prominent  because  it  is  no 
longer  the  only  source  of  action.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, whether  the  individualistic  tendency  is  really  de- 
creased very  much  in  adults,  though  its  influence  is 
partially  counteracted  by  other  instincts  and  by  training. 

The  child  needs  not  only  to  act  for  his  own  good,  but 
to  act  so  as  to  make  his  necessities  and  desires  known 
to  his  parents  that  they  may  be  supplied,  hence  the 
instinctive  and  acquired  powers  of  expression  are  made 
to  take  the  place  of  powers  not  yet  developed.  Activity 
in  forcing  his  wants  upon  the  attention  of  adults  is  more 
helpful  to  him  in  securing  the  means  of  subsistence, 
safety,  and  development  than  activity  on  his  own 
account  in  trying  to  get  them.  The  child  is,  therefore, 
a  natural  and  persistent  beggar.  He  not  only  makes 
his  wants  known  and  forces  them  continually  upon  the 


94  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

attention  of  parents  till  his  desires  are  satisfied,  but 
often  seems  to  assume  command  over  his  elders  as  his 
servants,  and  to  demand  of  them  what  he  wants.  This 
tendency  is  natural  and  unmoral,  not  immoral ;  but  both 
for  the  child's  own  good  and  that  of  his  elders,  it  needs 
to  be  kept  within  bounds  and  directed.  Even  mother 
birds,  cows,  and  dogs  find  it  necessary,  as  their  little 
ones  grow  up  and  become  able  to  care  for  themselves, 
to  refuse  their  demands  and  perhaps  drive  them  away 
to  look  out  for  themselves.  In  a  similar  way  parents 
should  continue  to  do  things  for  a  child  only  so  long  as 
he  is  unable  to  do  them  for  himself.  Even  before  that, 
social  training  should  be  begun  by  requiring  him  to 
indicate  his  wants  quietly  and  poHtely. 

DEVELOPMENT     OF    INDIVIDUALISTIC     INSTINCTS     INTO 
MOTIVES 

The  individualistic  instincts,  like  all  others,  are  at  first 
blind.  All  the  child's  early  movements  are  for  his  own 
well-being,  hence  the  ideas,  emotions,  and  volitions  that 
develop  from  these  movements  are  concerned  with 
obtaining  desirable  things  for  self,  though  he  has,  as 
yet,  no  clear  idea  of  self. 

In  the  second  and  third  year,  when  the  adaptive  in- 
stincts and  the  lower  forms  of  the  social  instinct  are  very 
prominent,  and  the  self  is  only  partially  distinguished 
in  consciousness  from  others,  whose  acts  and  mental 
states  are  so  frequently  reflected  in  the  child  himself, 
action  is  less  directly  individuaUstic.  The  child  does 
and  feels  as  others  around  him,  and  sometimes  seems 
equally  well  pleased  whether  he  or  some  one  else  gets 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT      95 

or  does  a  thing,  though  in  other  instances  he  is  very 
strenuous  about  being  the  one  to  do,  taste,  see,  etc. 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  years,  when  the  child  has  be- 
come more  of  a  self-conscious  being,  he  looks  ahead  to 
the  favorable  or  unfavorable  results  of  actions,  and 
recognizes  the  fact  that  favorable  results  to  another 
often  mean  that  they  shall  not  come  to  him.  The 
charming  appearance  of  unselfishness  in  desiring  others 
to  eat,  see,  hear,  etc.,  then  disappears,  and  he,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  tries  to  get  all  good  things  for  himself.  Re- 
flex sympathy,  and  the  desire  for  approval,  influence  his 
motives  and  actions ;  but  usually  he  tends  to  choose  con- 
sciously that  which  will  bring  pleasure  to  himself,  regard- 
less of  how  it  will  affect  others  (except  as  their  pain  is 
reflected  back  upon  himself).  Sometimes  he  schemes 
to  both  gratify  selfish  impulses  and  to  secure  social 
approval,  as  did  a  little  girl  who  had  been  taught  to 
take  the  smaller  piece,  when  she  insisted  on  giving  her 
brother  his  choice  of  two  parts  of  an  apple,  instead  of 
taking  her  choice  first. 

In  general,  the  question  which  the  child  mentally  asks 
of  every  object  and  every  person  is,  "  What  are  they 
good  for  }  "  meaning  by  "  good,"  "  What  can  I  get  out 
of  them  ?  "  He  is  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  every- 
thing and  everybody  is  for  his  pleasure.  Persons,  as 
well  as  things,  are  valued  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  pleasure  he  can  get  from  them. 

The  first  few  years  of  school  life  are  preeminently  the 
period  of  selfness  or  individualism.  The  chief  motive 
in  life  is  to  get  everything  possible  for  himself,  —  objects, 
sensations,  knowledge,  privileges,  and  honors.  It  is  the 
period  in  which  individual  rivalry  is  least  checked  by 


96  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

altruistic  impulses.  The  interests  of  the  child's  family 
and  special  friends  are  looked  after,  largely  because 
they  are  his.  The  prowess  of  a  big  brother,  or  the 
possessions  of  a  father,  or  the  goodness  of  a  friend,  are 
merely  a  part  of  the  young  monarch's  treasures,  to  be 
exhibited  to  those  outside  of  his  dominion.  Their  inter- 
ests are  to  be  advanced  as  a  means  of  self-enlargement. 
If,  however,  their  advantage  should  conflict  with  his, 
they  at  once  become  of  secondary  importance.  Every 
new  acquisition  of  possessions,  friends,  knowledge,  ex- 
perience, and  power  is  enjoyed  as  an  enlargement  of 
the  kingdom  of  self. 

To  be  thoughtful  of  the  interests  of  others,  or  to  be 
interested  in  anything  not  concerned  with  the  advance- 
ment of  this  kingdom  of  his,  would  be  to  be  something 
other  than  a  healthy,  normal  child.  He  cares  as  httle 
for  things  outside  of  his  domain  as  did  the  people  of 
ancient  nations.  The  way  in  which  the  child  mind  re- 
lates everything  to  self  is  beautifully  shown  by  asking 
children  to  give  sentences  containing  such  common 
words  as  cat,  house,  book,  and  noticing  what  a  large 
proportion  of  the  sentences  bring  self  in  {e.g.  "  My  cat 
is  white,"  ''  3fy  uncle  has  a  bull  dog,"  ''This  is  wj  book") 
as  compared  with  corresponding  sentences  written  by 
older  children  or  adults. 

INDIVIDUALISM    THE    BASIS    OF    HIGHER    DEVELOPMENT 

The  extreme  egoism  or  selfness  of  a  child  from  six  to 
ten  is  not  to  be  deprecated  (though  it  may  need  some 
mitigation)  for  it  is  an  important  and  valuable  phase  of 
development.  The  usefulness  of  any  individual  depends 
upon  what  he  is,  the  knowledge  and  power  that  he  pos- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT     97 

sesses,  and  the  use  he  makes  of  them.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  that  the  first  law  of  life  should  be  one  im- 
pelling to  self-enlargement  and  development.  If  the 
law  of  service  to  others  were  the  dominant  one  in  early- 
life,  there  would  never  be  a  self  capable  of  efficient 
service.  It  is  fortunate,  therefore,  that  no  training 
can  entirely  suppress  or  overshadow  the  individualistic 
instincts  in  early  life,  otherwise  many  children  would 
soon  be  so  good  they  would  be  good  for  nothing  as 
men  and  women. 

Modesty  is  undoubtedly  a  most  admirable  thing  in  a 
man,  especially  one  who  has  already  developed  a  great 
personality,  but  it  is  very  disadvantageous  in  a  child. 
The  more  pride  and  ambition  a  child  has,  so  long  as  it 
is  connected  with  active  effort  rather  than  passive  enjoy- 
ment, the  better  for  his  future  development.  If  praise 
and  reward  prompt  to  fresh  effort  (within  the  limits 
of  his  strength),  a  child  can  scarcely  have  too  much 
recognition  of  his  achievements.  What  would  be  insuf- 
ferable egotism  in  an  adult  is  perfectly  proper  in  the 
child.  If  the  child  has  companions  who  are  his  equals, 
and  is  held  to  standards  of  attainment  which  require  his 
best  efforts,  he  may  be  freely  encouraged  in  the  belief 
that  he  is  accomplishing  wonders. 

Every  parent  and  teacher  should  frankly  recognize 
that  the  all-powerful  motive  to  the  child  is  gain  to  self. 
The  gain  to  self  may  take  the  more  refined  forms  of 
securing  the  approbation  of  others  or  of  demonstrating 
his  power  to  do  things  for  them ;  but  it  must  contribute 
in  some  way  to  the  enlargement  of  the  child's  self,  in 
the  minds  of  others  and  to  his  own  consciousness. 

Intelligent  training,  either  for  good  or  evil,  will  be 


98  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

based  on  the  individualistic  instinct.  If  it  is  good  train- 
ing, it  will  lead  the  child  to  discover  that  he  can  get  the 
most  for  himself  in  the  long  run  by  being  kind  and 
helpful  to  others,  because  of  the  return  favors,  rewards, 
and  approbation  thus  gained.  If  the  training  is  bad,  it 
will  lead  the  child  to  the  belief  that  he  gets  the  most 
when  he  disregards  others,  and  gets  all  he  can  for  self. 
The  worst  possible  training  is  the  fond  and  foolish  kind 
which  appeals  to  unselfish  motives  (without  success,  of 
course),  inflicts  no  punishment,  and  guards  from  the 
natural  consequences  of  acts.^  A  parent  who  guards  a 
child  from  the  natural  results  of  his  wrong  acts,  and  a 
teacher  who  makes  many  rules  that  only  the  good  chil- 
dren take  the  trouble  to  obey,  while  the  bad  ones  enjoy 
the  forbidden  privileges,  form  the  worst  conceivable 
combination,  especially  if  the  child  has  no  chance  to 
play  with  children  of  his  own  age.  The  rough  com- 
panionship of  the  playground  without  any  attempt  at 
control  by  parent  or  teacher  would  be  much  better. 
If  he  strikes  another  child,  he  gets  a  blow  in  return 
which  teaches  him  that  such  actions  are  not  profitable ; 
while  if  he  strikes  a  fond  parent  he  gets  no  blow,  and  by 
a  little  crying  in  addition  he  may  get  some  jam. 

Even  sympathy,  gratitude,  and  all  the  higher  virtues 
are  based  on  regard  for  self.  Only  one  who  has 
experienced  an  unpleasant  mental  state  and  felt  a  strong 
desire  to  be  freed  from  it,  can  appreciate  such  mental 
states  in  others  and  experience  gratitude  for  relief.  The 
golden  rule  is  of  most  significance  to  him  who  cares 
most  for  himself. 

1  For  illustration,  see  Tanner,  Journal  of  Childhood  atid  Adolescence^ 
Vol.  II,  pp.  91-99,  229-246. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT      99 
THE    FEEDING    INSTINCT 

This  is  one  of  the  three  most  distinct  forms  of  the 
individualistic  instinct  and  one  of  the  first  to  be  mani- 
fested. Physically,  the  feeding  instinct  is  the  essential 
one  in  early  childhood,  but  mentally  it  is  of  no  great 
importance.  The  apparatus  for  satisfying  the  instinct 
is  so  nearly  perfect  at  birth,  and  the  sensations  given  by 
the  first  food  —  milk — are  so  mild,  that  the  act  of  nursing 
produces  little  consciousness.  When  the  instinct  is  not 
satisfied,  the  sensations  arising  from  hunger  and  from 
the  act  of  crying  are,  however,  probably  among  the 
first  \'ivid  conscious  experiences  of  the  child.  The 
sense  of  taste  proper  plays  a  small  part  in  the  mental 
life  of  the  child  during  the  first  two  years.  His 
curiosity,  playfulness,  and  interest  are  much  more 
readily  excited 'by  tactile,  visual,  and  auditory  stimuli 
than  by  taste  proper.  The  pangs  of  hunger  rather 
than  the  pleasure  of  satisfaction  are  what  render  the 
feeding  instinct  prominent  in  early  life. 

Variety  in  food  develops  the  instinct  of  eating  in  a 
positive  way,  so  that  by  the  time  a  child  is  three  or  four 
years  old  sensations  of  taste  occupy  a  prominent  place 
in  his  consciousness.  This  continues  for  several  years, 
and  there  is  probably  no  time  in  life  when  gustatory 
pleasures  and  pains  are  more  intense  than  at  five  or  six 
years  of  age.  To  be  able  to  gratify  the  desire  for  agree- 
able food  and  avoid  disagreeable  tastes  is  at  this  time 
one  of  the  chief  motives  in  life. 

FEAR 

Next  to  feeding,  the  most  fundamental  instinct  is  that 
of  escaping  or  avoiding  danger,  or  fear.     To  be  more 


ICX)  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

exact,  fear  is  the  emotion  experienced  when  such  actions 
are  performed,  and  especially  when  they  are  interfered 
with.  Starting  at  loud  sounds  is  one  of  its  earliest 
manifestations  in  children.  Another  early  and  striking 
evidence  of  this  instinct  is  shown  in  the  fear  of  falling 
that  appears  between  one  or  two  months,  and  lasts  only 
a  few  weeks.  This  form  of  the  instinct  may  never  be- 
come conscious,  since  it  dies  out  so  quickly.  The  fear 
of  falling,  a  number  of  months  later,  is  largely  the 
result  of  experience. 

The  modes  of  manifesting  fear  are  various,  such  as 
running,  hiding,  screaming,  keeping  silence,  changing 
color,  etc.,  but  they  are  all  largely  instinctive,  and  at  one 
time  in  race  history,  were  connected  with  self-preservative 
actions. 

All  new,  sudden,  and  strong  stimuli  are  likely  to 
call  into  action  the  fear  expressing  apparatus.  Sounds 
are  more  frequent  causes  of  fear  than  sights,  probably 
because  such  stimulation  may  be  more  strong  or 
sudden.  Aside  from  strength,  suddenness,  and  new- 
ness it  is  doubtful  whether  the  one  kind  of  object  is 
in  itself  more  fear-exciting  than  another.  The  dangers 
to  young  animals  are  so  various  that  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  one  kind  of  danger  could  have  developed  a 
specific  kind  of  fear  such  as  fear  of  hawks  by  chick- 
ens, of  cats  by  mice,  or  of  snakes  by  children.  The 
important  thing  for  a  young  animal  is  that  he  shall 
respond  as  his  parents  do  to  new  stimuli,  or  if  they  are 
not  present,  that  he  hide  or  get  away  from  possible 
danger.  The  chicken  crouches  when  a  hawk  appears 
because  its  mother  crouches  and  gives  the  danger  signal, 
or  if  alone,  because  a  saiHng  bird  like  a  hawk  is  a  new 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT     10 1 

object.  The  mouse  avoids  the  cat  because  its  mother 
does,  or  as  it  avoids  all  moving  things  that  are  new  to  it. 
The  child  fears  a  snake  because  of  the  shudders,  excla- 
mations, and  stories  of  adults,  or  possibly  because  of  the 
strange   form    and    movements    of    the   reptile. 

Probably  the  only  specialized  fear  that  is  instinctive  is 
that  excited  by  the  danger  call  of  parents.  If  there  is 
any  other  it  is  fear  of  darkness,  but  that  is  a  condition 
in  which  fear  may  readily  be  excited  rather  than  a 
specific  object  of  fear.  All  animals  and  persons  are 
more  easily  frightened  in  strange  surroundings  as  well 
as  by  strange  objects.  Darkness  makes  the  surround- 
ings strange  and  unknown,  hence  in  darkness  fear  is 
readily  excited. 

In  the  case  of  children  in  the  dark  no  external  object 
is  necessary  to  excite  fear ;  imaginary  objects  are  suffi- 
cient. Unless  children  have  been  accustomed  to  a  light, 
they  never  become  frightened  at  the  dark  until  their 
imagination  develops.  When  a  child  is  capable  of 
picturing  events,  the  recall  of  any  fearful  experience 
while  in  the  dark  where  the  eyes  do  not  contradict  the 
imagining  is  sufficient  to  excite  fear.  Thus  a  Httle  girl 
about  two,  who  had  been  told  the  story  of  the  "  Three 
Bears,"  with  realistic  imitations  of  the  large  bear, 
suddenly  developed  fear  of  being  left  in  the  dark. 

After  a  child  has  once  experienced  fear  in  the  dark, 
he  has  a  tendency  to  fear  whenever  left  in  the  dark. 
His  imagination  makes  various  vague  or  vivid  pictures, 
and  often  the  more  vague  and  indefinite  the  picture, 
the  greater  the  fear,  for  it  has  the  element  of  strange- 
ness and  he  has  no  means  of  demonstrating  that  it 
has  not  objective  reality.     Where  some  definite  visual 


102  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

object  is  feared,  especially  if  it  is  something  new,  the 
fear  may  often  be  allayed  by  bringing  a  light  and 
showing  what  it  is,  or  that  nothing  is  really  there. 

There  are  few  children  who  do  not,  for  a  consider- 
able time,  suffer  tortures  in  the  dark,  often  without  the 
knowledge  of  their  parents.  An  unsympathetic  or  ridi- 
culing adult  does  not  invite  confidence,  hence  even  if 
the  child's  fears  are  of  sufficiently  definite  things  to  be 
expressed  (as  they  are  not  usually),  he  does  not  make 
many  attempts  to  explain.  He  often  either  suffers  in 
silence  with  head  covered  or  finds  all  sorts  of  excuses 
for  getting  adults  to  come  to  his  room  or  strike  a  light 
in  it. 

The  period  of  greatest  fear,  though  it  varies  with 
special  experiences,  is  usually  at  about  three  or  four 
years  of  age.  No  matter  how  careful  parents  may  be 
about  having  their  children  frightened  by  stories  or 
otherwise,  they  usually  become  at  this  time  virtually 
little  "'fraid  cats."  Biologically,  this  is  the  time  when 
they  begin  to  act  for  themselves  to  some  extent  away 
from  parents,  and  consequently  the  time  at  which  readi- 
ness to  become  frightened  and  run  home  would  be  most 
useful.  Psychologically,  it  is  a  time  when  the  imagina- 
tion is  very  active,  and  when  its  action  is  not  limited 
by  any  fixed  laws  of  possibility  or  probability.  Children, 
however,  who  are  unimaginative,  or  who  are  fortunate 
enough  to  escape  fearful  experiences,  are  often  at  this 
time  literally  without  fear.  Never  having  experienced 
it  they  do  not  know  what  it  is.  A  single  experience, 
however,  in  which  the  child  is  really  frightened  (not 
merely  hurt),  may  transform  him  into  an  arrant  coward. 

Fear  should  be  and  usually  is  a  waning  instinct,  yet 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT     103 

one  that  never  entirely  dies  out.  As  the  child  becomes 
better  able  to  take  care  of  himself,  and  more  familiar 
with  his  surroundings,  fear  in  the  sense  of  a  sudden  and 
strong  emotion  becomes  less,  though  perhaps  fear  in  the 
sense  of  caution  or  prudence  is  increasing.  With  prog- 
ress in  civilization,  and  knowledge  which  makes  the 
conditions  of  life  safer,  and  leads  more  and  more  to 
the  belief  that  even  the  unknown  is  governed  by  known 
laws,  fear  should  gradually  die  out. 

Undoubtedly,  there  is  less  fear  than  formerly,  but 
many  people  suffer  all  their  lives  from  fears  which  are 
usually  quite  unreasonable.  Some  of  these  fears  of 
natural  forces  and  forms,  such  as  thunder,  fire,  water, 
caves,  reptiles,  and  insects,  may  be  survivals  from  more 
primitive  conditions  of  Hf  e  ;  but  they  are  probably  merely 
transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another  by  social 
heredity.  Others  of  them,  such  as  of  guns,  engines, 
knives,  etc.,  cannot  possibly  be  instinctive. 

Fear  in  the  sense  of  prudence,  which  leads  one  to 
avoid  what  is  likely  to  bring  unpleasant  results,  or  in 
the  sense  of  caution  in  regard  to  incurring  unknown 
consequences,  is  a  good  thing  ;  but  fear,  in  the  sense 
of  a  sudden,  strong,  paralyzing  emotion,  is  injurious 
physically,  stupefying  mentally,  and  degenerative  mor- 
ally. It  makes  one's  life  miserable,  weak,  unworthy. 
Every  effort  should  therefore  be  made  to  eradicate  it. 
Fear  is  so  powerful  an  instinct  in  children  that  by 
means  of  it  they  may  be  made  to  do  almost  anything. 
It  should  not,  however,  be  used  as  a  motive  except  in 
the  milder  forms,  which  develop  prudence  and  caution 
rather  than  terror. 

As  to  modes  of  deaHng  with  the  fear  of  children,  a 


104  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

few  general  principles  only  are  clear,  (i)  Occasions  of 
fear  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  when  it 
is  excited,  reassurance  given  as  quickly  as  possible.  To 
compel  children  to  endure  terrors  is  decidedly  cruel,  and 
utterly  useless  as  a  corrective.  If  their  fears  can  be 
allayed  by  temporarily  bringing  a  light  or  otherwise  re- 
moving the  cause  of  fear,  or  if  the  child  can  be  induced  to 
be  ** brave"  and  face  it  himself,  much  is  gained.  (2)  Un- 
reasonable fears,  which  are  the  most  common  and  least 
dependent  upon  experience,  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  dissi- 
pated by  reasoning ;  but  one  can  only  trust  to  quieting 
assurances,  time,  and  experience,  and  the  growth  of 
courage  and  self-control,  to  effect  a  cure. 

Fears  caused  by  unfortunate  first  experiences  with  a 
class  of  objects  may  usually  be  dissipated  by  reasoning 
and  favorable  experiences.  The  quicker  such  cure  can 
be  applied,  the  better.  For  example,  a  two-year-old  boy 
was  frightened  by  a  thunder-storm;  but  at  his  first  call, 
suggesting  rising  terror,  his  father  went  to  him  and 
talked  to  him,  comparing  it  to  the  lighting  of  great 
matches,  and  remained  with  him  awhile,  admiring  the 
beauty  of  the  storm.  The  result  was  that  he  never 
afterward  showed  fear  of  a  thunder-storm. 

THE    FIGHTING    INSTINCT 

The  fighting  instinct  and  its  accompanying  emotion, 
anger,  are  early  aroused  by  anything  interfering  with 
the  child's  activities  or  wishes.  It  is  first  manifested  by 
crying,  turning  away  the  head,  pushing  away  an  offend- 
ing object,  and  later  in  kicking  and  striking,  and  not 
infrequently  by  stamping  with  the  feet  or  striking  the 
head  against  the  floor. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT     1 05 

In  general,  this  emotion  is  more  intense  and  easily 
aroused  in  children  than  in  adults,  but  also  very  much 
shorter  lived.  Within  a  space  of  less  than  half  a  minute 
a  boy  of  two  fondly  stroked  his  mother,  then  jumped 
from  her  lap  in  anger  when  she  refused  to  let  him  do 
something,  then  burst  out  laughing  at  something  he  saw. 

In  dealing  with  this  emotion  care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  occasions  of  anger,  especially  when  the  child  is 
hungry  or  otherwise  in  an  irritable  mood,  and  equal  care 
taken  that  he  gains  nothing  by  his  outburst,  but  rather 
loses  something.  Under  no  circumstance  should  the 
parent  or  teacher  meet  anger  with  anger,  for  nothing 
will  more  surely  make  the  matter  worse.  Indifference, 
isolation,  or  a  calm  resistance  that  makes  the  child  real- 
ize the  utter  uselessness  of  his  passion  are  usually  more 
effective.  The  reaction  following  a  futile  outburst  of 
anger  is  Hkely  to  arouse  reflections  that  lead  to  future 
efforts  at  self-control. 

As  to  the  fighting  instinct,  and  the  much  mooted  ques- 
tion whether  boys  should  be  allowed  to  fight,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  instinct  is  a  natural  and  legitimate  one  if 
not  carried  to  excess.  A  boy  with  no  tendency  to  fight 
under  any  circumstance,  or  with  the  tendency  under  full 
control,  would  be  a  monstrosity  as  a  child,  and  a  nonen- 
tity as  a  man.  Nothing  can  be  more  unwise  than  to  tell 
a  child  he  must  never  fight.  It  is  not  only  unwise  but 
wrong  to  absolutely  prohibit  a  child  from  fighting  — 
wrong  to  his  nature,  and  to  that  of  other  boys,  who  will 
thus  be  tempted  to  impose  upon  him.  Fighting  is  a 
crude  form  of  social  action  adapted  to  the  early  stage 
of  human  development,  and  usually  results  in  valuable 
lessons. 


I06  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

On  the  other  hand,  as  a  rule,  the  tendency  to  fight 
needs  no  encouragement.  The  best  corrective  for  ex- 
treme pugnacity  is,  however,  an  encounter  with  a  supe- 
rior in  the  art,  rather  than  the  words  or  blows  of  some 
one  in  authority. 

Competition  is  a  form  of  fighting  that  is  very  promi- 
nent all  through  life.  The  tendency  to  individual  com- 
petition is  very  strong  the  first  half-dozen  years  of  school 
life  and  may  very  properly  be  utilized  in  school.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  make  it  fair  to  all,  and  after  a  time  it 
should  take  the  form  of  competition  of  groups  rather 
than  of  individuals. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  Give  illustrations  of  the  strength  of  individualistic  instincts  in 
adults. 

2.  Give  proof  showing  the  uselessness  to  the  species  of  any  other 
than  individualistic  acts  by  children. 

3.  Give  a  number  of  observations  you  have  made,  showing  how 
children  are  governed  by  individualistic  motives. 

4.  It  will  be  well  to  make  the  experiment  of  having  children  and 
adults  write  sentences  containing  common  words,  and  note  to  what 
extent  self  is  brought  in. 

5 .  Two  children  of  four  and  six,  who  went  to  buy  a  present  for 
baby  sister  and  for  grandma,  could  hardly  be  prevented  from  buy- 
ing  things  that  neither  baby  nor  grandma  could  use,  though  attrac- 
tive to  children  of  their  own  age.     Why  was  this  ? 

6.  Mention  a  number  of  ways  of  using  rivalry  in  school. 

7.  Women  are  more  personal  in  their  relations  than  men,  they 
are  also  better  primary  teachers.  Is  there  any  relation  between 
these  two  qualities  ? 

8.  Which  should  a  teacher  praise,  perfectness  of  results  or  indi- 
vidual effort  and  achievement  ?    Why  ? 

9.  Which  would  you  rather  have,  a  child  with  too  much  or  too 
little  regard  for  and  confidence  in  self  ?    Why  ? 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUALISTIC  INSTINCT     107 

10.  Illustrate  how  a  child  may  be  led  to  see  that  he  can  get  more 
pleasure  by  obedience  and  kindness  than  by  the  opposite. 

11.  A  little  girl  who  had  often  been  reproved  for  not  persisting  in 
her  tasks,  showed  a  great  deal  of  gratitude  when  her  father  worked  a 
long  while  to  make  something  for  her.     Why  was  this  ? 

12.  Give  illustrations  of  sympathy  and  gratitude  of  children. 

13.  Report  observations  or  reminiscences  of  the  prominence  of 
the  desire  in  children  for  good  things  to  eat. 

14.  Give  a  full  report  of  your  own  fears  at  different  ages,  also 
report  observations  that  you  have  made. 

15.  Give  evidence  for  and  against  the  view  that  there  are  special 
instinctive  fears. 

16.  Illustrate  the  importance  of  first  experiences  in  giving  rise  to 
fears. 

17.  Show  how  caution  may  be  developed  without  exciting  fear. 

18.  Report  from  observation  and  reading,  modes  of  treating 
anger. 

19.  Discuss  evils  and  advantages  of  fighting  among  boys. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  see  Drummond,  Ascent  of  Man, 
chap,  vi,  and  Ribot,  Psychology  of  E))ifltions,  pp.  199-206,  and  on 
egoism  and  altruism,  consult  psychologies,  especially  Hoefding. 

On  the  early  emotions  and  their  expression,  see  Compayre,  Vol.  I, 
chap.  V  ;  also  Preyer,  Tracy,  et  al. 

On  fear,  read  Ribot,  pp.  207-217;  Hall,  Am.  fr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  147-249  ;  Stanley,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  241-256  ;  Ajh.  fr. 
Psych.,\o\.  IX, pp.  418-419  ;  Barnes,  Studies  hi  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
18-21  ;  Calkins,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  319-323;  Sitwer,  Kg. 
Mag.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  82-87;  Tracy,  pp.  44-47;  Preyer,  Part  I, 
pp.  164-172:  Sully,  Studies  in  Childhood,  ch2.^.  vi ;  Rowe,  Out- 
look, Sept.  2,  1898,  p.  232. 

On  anger,  read  Hall,  Am.  fr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  S^^S9^  \  Ribot, 
pp.  218-229;  Tracy,  pp.  47-49- 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE   PARENTAL  AND   THE 
SOCIAL   INSTINCTS 

I.    The  Parental  Instinct 

LATENESS    OF    DEVELOPMENT 

The  term  parental  instinct  includes  all  native  ten- 
dencies to  produce  and  care  for  the  young.  Since 
sexual  reproduction  is  the  rule  in  all  animal  life  except 
possibly  in  a  very  few  of  the  lowest  forms ;  and  since  it 
has  been  necessary  among  all  species  that  have  survived, 
it  might  be  supposed  that  the  parental  instinct  would 
appear  in  man  at  a  very  early  age.  This  instinct,  how- 
ever, does  not,  as  a  rule,  appear  with  any  prominence 
until  more  than  a  dozen  years  after  birth  ;  hence  primi- 
tiveness  and  universal  usefulness  cannot,  in  this  case  at 
least,  be  the  most  important  factors  governing  the  order 
of  the  development  of  instincts  in  the  individual.  Evi- 
dently the  principle  of  usefulness,  as  determined  by 
degree  of  maturity  of  the  young  animal,  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  he  must  live,  is  the  factor  of  greatest 
significance  here. 

All  physical  and  mental  tests  show  that  the  differ- 
ences between  boys  and  girls  are  sUght  up  to  ten  years 
of  age.  Sexual  feelings  are  probably  experienced 
before  this  only  in  abnormal  children.     As  a  rule,  boys 

109 


no  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

and  girls  exercise  very  little  sexual  influence  upon  each 
other  until  just  before  puberty,  though  there  are  of 
course  many  exceptions.  Most  of  the  little  "  love 
affairs"  between  small  boys  and  girls  are  not  greatly 
different  from  the  chumming  of  those  of  the  same  sex. 

At  puberty,  however,  there  is  a  change.  At  first  it  is 
manifested  in  a  slight  shyness  in  each  other's  presence, 
or  in  repugnance  to  the  companionship  of  the  opposite 
sex.  A  little  later  there  is  a  subtle  attraction  toward 
persons  of  the  opposite  sex,  and  a  marked  tendency  to 
dress  and  act  differently  in  their  presence.  This  ten- 
dency soon  becomes  very  strong.  In  the  meantime, 
distinct  sexual  feelings  have  been  experienced  in  con- 
nection with  dreams  or  otherwise. 

In  the  ideal  normal  development  the  sexual  feeling 
and  impulse  are  unconsciously  the  basis  of  the  attrac- 
tion toward  the  opposite  sex,  and  of  the  desire  to  attract 
the  notice  of  its  members  and  please  them.  The  age  of 
love  and  romance  has  come,  and  well  for  the  youth  is  it 
if  in  loving  he  is  conscious  only  of  the  physical  beauty 
and  moral  and  intellectual  worth  of  his  love,  while  the 
unconscious  sex  passion  remains  an  unrecognized  but  all- 
powerful  force,  impelHng  him  to  devote  himself  body 
and  soul  to  the  object  of  his  regard. 

After  marriage  and  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  other 
form  of  the  instinct,  that  of  protecting  and  caring  for  the 
young,  appears  in  its  full  intensity,  especially  in  the 
mother.  There  are,  however,  earlier  manifestations  or 
premonitions  of  this  instinct  in  caring  for  pets  and 
younger  children  by  both  sexes,  and  in  doll  play,  chiefly 
by  girls.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  impulse  to 
care  for  young  appears  in  at  least  a  rudimentary  form 


PARENTAL  AND    SOCIAL   INSTINCTS  III 

before  the  impulse  to  produce  young,  though  the  latter 
instinct  must  be  much  older  in  the  history  of  the  race. 
It  may  be,  however,  that  these  care-taking  impulses 
are  the  result  of  social  influence  and  imitation,  or  as 
Hall  suggests,  of  fetichism  rather  than  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  parental  instinct. 

The  genuine  care-taking  or  parental  instinct  of  adults 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  those  who  are  parents. 
Maiden  aunts  and  bachelor  uncles  often  seem  to  have 
more  of  it  than  the  parents  themselves.  The  best  pri- 
mary teachers  have  it  in  a  marked  degree,  and  a  strong 
parental  instinct  may  be  regarded  as  essential  to  all  who 
try  to  influence  children  and  young  people. 

RELATION  OF  THE  PARENTAL  INSTINCT  TO  OTHER 
IMPULSES  AND  FEELINGS 

Since  the  parental  instinct  is  and  has  been  in  all  ages 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  continuation  of  the  species, 
and  is  in  its  very  nature  both  individual  and  social,  it  has 
become  associated  with  all  forms  of  action. 

On  the  one  hand,  it  has  developed  the  fighting  ten- 
dency, since  fighting  for  a  mate  is  the  most  common 
form  of  combat.  The  tendency  to  competition  is  thus 
increased,  courage  is  developed,  and  ambition  aroused. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  has  developed  the  opposite  ten- 
dency of  seeking  the  favor  of  a  mate.  Most  male 
animals  engage  in  some  kind  of  courtship  in  which 
they  exhibit  their  powers  and  charms  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, and  strive  to  please  her. 

The  tendency  to  certain  forms  of  play  and  to  adorn- 
ment is  also  increased  by  the  sexual  impulses.  Darwin 
and  others  hold  that  there  is  a  close  relation  between 


112  FUNDxVMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

the  development  of  the  aesthetic  sense  and  sexual  selec- 
tion. It  is  significant  that  love  is  the  most  frequent 
inspiration  to  artistic  productions  in  poetry,  painting, 
and  music.  Lancaster  finds  that  the  appreciation  of 
beauty  is  greatly  increased  at  puberty.  There  is  good 
reason,  therefore,  for  holding  that  the  aesthetic  feelings 
and  impulses  are  closely  related  to  this  instinct. 

It  is  evident,  without  discussion,  that  the  ^social  in- 
stinct and  feelings  are  only  an  extension  of  vthe  parental 
instinct  from  the  family  to  larger  groups. 

Moral  impulses  and  feelings  are  evidently  related  to 
the  parental  instincts,  since  one  of  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant forms  of  ownership  is  the  ownership  of  a  mate, 
and  resulting  from  such  ownership  are  certain  rights  and 
duties.  In  this  instinct  we  find  the  first  impulse  to 
please,  help,  and  guard  others  instead  of  to  act  wholly 
for  self.  The  virtues  of  diligence  in  seeking  food,  and 
courage  in  fighting  rivals  and  defending  offspring,  are 
developed  in  the  males,  and  those  of  patience  and  ten- 
derness in  the  females. 

The  relation  of  the  parental  instinct  to  the  religious 
was  long  ago  suggested  by  the  fact  that  revivals  and  reli- 
gious excitement  were  frequently  accompanied  by  many 
engagements  and  marriages.  Modern  research  has 
confirmed  this  view  and  shown  that  in  all  ages  and 
among  all  peoples,  religion  and  the  sexual  impulse  are 
related  in  some  way.  The  exact  causal  relations  are  not 
yet  clear,  but  both  instincts  involve  something  of  the 
same  feeling  of  love,  reverence,  and  self-devotion  to  the 
object  of  one's  love.  Hence  religious  awakening  fre- 
quently results  in  love  for  some  one  of  the  opposite  sex, 
and  love  often  leads  to  religious  interest.     For  similar 


PARENTAL  AND   SOCIAL  INSTINCTS  II3 

reasons  sexual  and  religious  excesses  and  abnormalities 
are  frequently  associated. 

It  is  evident  that  the  parental  instinct  is  not  only- 
necessary  to  the  life  of  the  species,  but  also  to  the  health 
and  life  of  the  individual  physically  and  spiritually.  No 
other  instinct,  therefore,  exercises  such  a  profound  and 
far-reaching  influence  upon  character. 

RIGHT    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    PARENTAL    INSTINCT 

Since  the  parental  instinct  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
of  instincts,  and  in  man  is  related  to  all  phases  of  his 
nature,  it  is  especially  important  that  it  develop  along 
right  lines.  In  order  that  this  take  place  there  must  be 
avoidance  ( i )  of  an  excessive  or  perverted  development, 
and  (2)  of  unfortunate  associations  in  consciousness. 

(i)  Sex  feelings  and  perverted  functioning  of  the 
instinct  sometimes  occur  in  young  children  and  even  in 
infants,  but  most  commonly  at  puberty.  Looking  at  the 
matter  from  the  physiological  side,  we  note  that  not 
infrequently  some  physical  defect  is  the  cause  of  sex 
excitement  and  perversion  in  childhood.  Circumcision 
is  often  helpful  in  preventing  such  premature  develop- 
ment in  boys.  Uncleanness  and  irritation  produced  by 
clothing  are  to  be  avoided  as  frequent  exciters  of  the 
organs.  The  ganglion  especially  concerned  in  the  sex 
instinct  is  located  in  the  lumbar  region  of  the  spinal 
cord,  and  heat  is  a  most  potent  stimulus ;  hence  the  sleep- 
ing of  a  child  with  back  to  a  feather  bed  or  to  a  com- 
panion, especially  in  a  warm  room  or  under  thick  covers, 
should  not  be  permitted.  Stimulating  food  should  be 
avoided,  and  as  puberty  is  approached  it  is  especially 


114  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

important  that  the  child  have  plenty  of  outdoor  exercise 
and  something  to  occupy  mind  and  body. 

From  the  social  side  it  is  desirable  that  boys  and  girls 
should  play  together  freely  without  sex  distinctions 
being  made  prominent.  Social  customs  usually  demand 
different  conduct  on  the  part  of  girls,  but  it  were  well 
to  make  the  differences  as  slight  as  possible,  before  ten 
at  least.  Joking  young  boys  or  girls  about  their  beaux 
is  as  objectionable  as  pulling  at  buds  on  the  rose-bush 
long  before  they  are  ready  to  open.  Boys  and  girls 
should  be  permitted  to  remain  good  comrades  and 
chums  as  long  as  possible  without  any  thought  of  love. 

There  is  no  reason  whatever  for  separating  boys  and 
girls  in  primary  schools.  In  secondary  schools  and 
colleges  there  are  many  arguments  on  both  sides. 
There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  sexual  development  is 
more  normal  and  healthy  when  the  sexes  are  together  a 
great  deal  than  when  they  are  separated.  This,  and  the 
fact  that  the  best  education  for  life  is  most  like  the  life 
to  be  lived,  are  strong  arguments  for  coeducation  in  this 
country,  where  men  and  women  meet  so  much  on  equal 
planes  after  they  leave  school. 

(2)  The  question  of  greatest  practical  importance 
regarding  the  parental  instinct  is,  "  What  conscious  asso- 
ciations with  the  impulse  shall  be  formed  }  "  The  asso- 
ciations may  be  low  and  vile,  or  high  and  pure.  In  the 
one  case,  selfish  sensualism  is  likely  to  result,  and  in  the 
other,  altruistic  devotion  and  social  service. 

This  matter  is  closely  connected  with  the  question  of 
how  boys  and  girls  shall  acquire  a  knowledge  of  sex 
functions. 

It  may  be  asserted  that  in  the  case  of  this  as  in  other 


PARENTAL  AND   SOCIAL  INSTINCTS  115 

instincts  it  is  best  to  let  the  instinct  gradually  and  natu- 
rally come  into  consciousness  as  it  begins  to  function. 
This  would  be  a  good  way  to  do  were  it  not  for  a  few 
very  practical  reasons  against  it. 

In  the  first  place,  social  customs  and  moral  principles 
do  not  permit  the  functioning  of  the  instinct  except  in 
a  very  limited  and  prescribed  way,  and  that  not  until 
long  after  the  instinct  has  become  very  strong;  hence 
the  necessity  of  controlUng  the  instinct  must  be  learned 
artificially  rather  than  by  the  natural  social  punishment 
following  indulgence. 

Second,  ignorance  of  sex  functions  cannot  be  pre- 
served in  boys  or  girls  who  associate  with  others. 
They  inevitably  acquire  some  knowledge,  and  that 
usually  of  the  filthiest  sort. 

In  the  third  place,  the  sex  instinct,  not  having  oppor- 
tunity for  its  natural  functioning,  is  likely  to  produce 
unnatural  modes  of  gratification,  whose  evil  effects  are 
unknown  to  the  youth.  Recent  studies  indicate  that 
this  is  the  case  among  nine-tenths  of  the  best  boys. 
Such  unnatural  gratification  is  injurious  physically  when 
carried  to  excess  as  it  often  is,  and  always  more  or  less 
damaging  morally  even  if  not  carried  to  excess.  This  is 
especially  true  where  the  imagination  plays  a  large  part 
in  the  indulgence.  The  fountains  of  pure  love,  man- 
hood, and  decency  are  often  forever  befouled.  The  youth 
is  thereby  unfitted  for  the  highest  type  of  love,  the  most 
perfect  union  with  one  of  the  other  sex,  and  the  purest 
fatherhood.  His  social,  aesthetic,  moral,  and  religious 
capacities  are  also  almost  inevitably  undeveloped  or 
perverted. 

The  importance  of   giving  the  sexual  impulse  right 


Il6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

associations  is  very  much  emphasized  by  recent  studies 
of  sexual  abnormalities.  It  seems  that,  on  the  one  hand, 
almost  anything,  as  an  old  shoe  or  the  sight  of  blood, 
may  become  a  stimulus  to  the  sexual  orgasm ;  while 
on  the  other  hand,  the  unexpended  sexual  energy  may 
be  utilized  in  almost  any  line  of  physical,  emotional,  or 
intellectual  life.  Science,  religion,  and  philanthropy,  as 
well  as  art,  literature,  and  industry,  may  be  promoted, 
therefore,  by  the  use  of  the  unexpended  energy  of  the 
all-powerful  sexual  impulse,  diverted  by  appropriate 
associations  into  these  channels. 

It  is  surprising  how  long  civilized  people  have  con- 
tinued to  believe  in  the  idea  that  children  may  be  kept 
innocent  sexually  by  keeping  them  ignorant  of  sex 
functions.  It  has  always  been  a  double  failure,  for  the 
attempt  to  keep  children  ignorant  has  almost  universally 
failed,  hence  on  that  score  the  choice  is  necessarily 
between  half  knowledge  reeking  with  secret  filth  and 
evil  suggestions,  and  full  satisfying  knowledge  drawn 
from  the  pure  fountain  of  parental  wisdom  accompanied 
with  and  suggestive  of  high  feelings  and  holy  im- 
pulses. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  that  the  sexual  impulse 
is  inevitably  one  of  the  most  powerful  inner  life  ten- 
dencies, especially  during  the  adolescent  period.  This 
instinct  may  be  the  basis  of  all  manly  and  womanly 
virtues,  stimulating  to  love,  tenderness,  devotion,  cour- 
age, and  high  aspiration  in  social,  aesthetic,  moral,  and 
religious  life,  or  the  foul  source  of  hate,  brutality,  self- 
indulgence,  weakness,  and  low  desires,  in  a  purely  sel- 
fish and  beastly  life;  yet  as  a  rule,  young  people  are 
allowed  to  remain  ignorant  of  all  this. 


PARENTAL  AND   SOCIAL   INSTINCTS  II7 

No  parent  who  loved  his  children  would  permit  them 
to  go  out  from  his  care  into  new  surroundings,  sure  to 
make  or  mar  them  morally,  without  seeking  to  prepare  ^ 

them    for    avoiding    dangers    and    securing   benefits  in  >, 

the  new  conditions  of  life.     The  adolescent  is  enter- 
ing such  a  life ;  hence  there  is  no  excuse  for  allowing  S.-^ 
him  to  enter  it  without  some  foreknowledge  of  the  facts,  ^j 
possibilities,  and  dangers  to  be  faced. 

The  imperfect  knowledge  gained  from  companions  is 
both  unsatisfactory  and  misleading.     Lancaster  found  in 
the  possession  of  one  advertising  firm,  seven  hundred  and 
five  thousand  letters  from  boys  who  had  thus  consulted        '^^sy 
quacks  regarding  their  perverted  habits  and  real  or  sup-  v 

posed  diseases.  Some  had  paid  hundreds  of  dollars  for  *• 
treatment,  when  the  symptoms  described  were  perfectly  ;  ^ 
normal  (such  as  sexual  dreams).  Many  of  the  boys 
were  suffering  untold  agonies  because  they  supposed 
they  were  ruined  physically,  socially,  and  morally. 
They  dared  not  speak  to  parent,  family  physician,  or 
adult  friend,  but  poured  out  their  whole  souls  to  these 
distant  and  unworthy  strangers. 

As  to  when  the  knowledge  should  be  given,  the  an- 
swer is  plain,  i.e.  when  the  child  first  questions  regard- 
ing it  and  whenever  further  questions  call  for  fuller 
explanations.  An  unanswered  question  is  insistent; 
curiosity  once  aroused,  grows  by  attempts  of  others  to 
suppress  or  divert  it,  and  the  matter  is  almost  surely 
dwelt  upon  secretly,  and  frequently  knowledge  is  sur- 
reptitiously sought.  If  one  waits  till  the  advent  of 
puberty,  the  mind  of  the  youth  is  probably  already 
befouled,  and  in  any  case,  very  much  directing  of  atten- 
tion to  the  matter  at  this  time  may  stimulate  undesirable 


Il8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

subjective  states.  To  speak  frankly  for  the  first  time 
to  a  child  of  this  age,  is  also  so  embarrassing  that  not 
one  parent  in  a  thousand  dare  attempt  it,  though  he 
knows  it  to  be  his  duty.  On  the  other  hand,  the  per- 
fect and  unconscious  innocence  of  the  child  of  four 
who  asks  where  he  came  from  or  about  parts  of  his 
body,  makes  plain,  unabashed  speaking  comparatively 
easy  to  adults  who  ordinarily  cannot  free  the  subject 
from  its,  to  them,  evil  suggestions.  Further  and  fuller 
information  should  be  given  as  the  child  grows  older. 
The  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  child  to  go  to  the 
parent  for  information  on  this  subject  as  frankly  and 
freely  as  on  other  subjects,  instead  of  seeking  it  secretly 
or  of  evil  companions,  should  be  carefully  preserved. 

Perfect  truthfulness  and  frankness  is  the  one  essen- 
tial, though  much  is  gained  by  giving  this  truth  sacred 
associations.  Books  written  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
sex  information  may  be  useful,  but  should  not  wholly 
take  the  place  of  frank  talks  between  parent  and  child. 
Teachers  may  sometimes  be  very  helpful  to  young 
people  whose  parents  have  neglected  their  duty  in  this 
regard. 

II.   Development  of  the  Social  Instinct 

Men  are  preeminently  social  beings.  Among  all 
races  of  men  are  to  be  found,  not  only  families,  but 
larger  aggregations,  living  in  close  proximity  and  asso- 
ciation with  each  other.  This  is  necessarily  so,  since 
solitary  individuals  have  little  chance  of  survival  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  with  nature  and  with  groups  of 
men.  Desire  for  companionship  is  the  natural  inherit- 
ance of  an  ancestry  that  must  have  sought  it  in  order 


PARENTAL  AND   SOCIAL   INSTINCTS  II9 

to  survive.  Hermits  are  therefore  rare  exceptions, 
while  to  most  persons  solitude  is  the  greatest  of  punish- 
ments. 

This  instinct  is  manifested  (i)  in  the  tendency  to 
seek  the  companionship  of  others,  or  gregariousness  ; 
(2)  in  the  impulse  to  feel  as  others  do,  or  sympa- 
thy ;  (3)  in  efforts  to  please  others,  or  love  of  appro- 
bation ;  (4)  in  action  with  others  for  a  common  end,  and 
for  the  good  of  others,  or  altruism. 

(i)  The  gregarious  instinct  needs  to  be  prominent  in 
the  young,  as  their  life  depends  upon  their  associations 
with  adults.  Most  children  manifest  a  desire  for  the 
presence  of  adults  before  they  can  walk.  A  little  later, 
though  ordinarily  shy  of  strangers,  they  seek  the  pro- 
tection of  any  human  being,  if  frightened  by  an  animal. 
As  early  as  the  second  year  they  manifest  great  pleasure 
in  the  company  of  children  near  their  own  age.  Evi- 
dently they  feel  the  greater  likeness  to  themselves,  and 
this  "consciousness  of  kind"  produces  a  relationship 
different  from  that  with  adults.  Young  children  not 
only  enjoy  the  company  of  other  children  as  they  can- 
not that  of  older  people  who  are  so  different,  but  they 
also  often  understand  each  other  much  better  than 
adults  understand  them. 

Association  with  persons  who  are  older,  and  with 
those  who  are  younger,  gives  pleasure  and  valuable 
social  development ;  but  these  are  produced  in  greatest 
measure  by  association  with  those  of  one's  own  age, 
where  there  is  both  give  and  take,  coupled  with  a  better 
understanding  and  efforts  for  common  ends.  Children, 
even  as  early  as  the  second  year,  receive  an  education 
from  being  with  children  of  their  own  age  that  can  be 


I20  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

obtained  in  no  other  way.  The  child  who  is  never 
allowed  to  be  with  other  children  is  deprived  of  a  valu- 
able birthright,  and  can  never  be  quite  the  same  socially 
as  he  would  have  been  had  he  associated  fully  with 
other  children.  A  child  may  be  better  in  some  ways 
and  learn  more  by  being  kept  with  adults,  but  never  can 
his  whole  nature  be  so  fully  developed. 

CJiums  exercise  a  powerful  influence  over  each  other 
where  the  relation  is  continued  for  a  long  time,  and 
this  more  or  less  complete  sharing  of  life  with  another 
is  a  valuable  experience.  If,  however,  the  relation 
is  long  continued,  and  is  so  close  that  there  is  no  asso- 
ciation with  other  persons,  the  effect  is  narrowing, 
because  both  are  cut  off  from  a  wider  social  life.  Again, 
if  one  of  the  chums  is  a  leader  and  the  other  a  follower, 
the  results  are  unfortunate,  for  every  child  should  have 
experience  in  both  capacities. 

(2)  Sympathy  is  closely  related  to,  and  probably,  to 
some  extent,  the  product  of,  reflex  imitation.  The  child 
reflects  the  emotional  expression  of  others,  and  as  a 
result  feels  somewhat  as  they  do.  Children,  therefore, 
readily  cry  in  terror,  or  laugh  with  glee,  when  those 
around  them   do  so. 

Real  sympathy,  of  course,  appears  only  when  the 
child  not  only  feels  somewhat  as  others  do,  but  con- 
sciously represents  them  as  having  feeUngs  like  his  own. 
This  is  likely. to  occur  in  the  third  year.  When  the 
idea  is  once  developed  it  is  likely  to  be  extended  not 
only  to  persons,  but  to  animals,  flowers,  and  even  sticks 
and  stones.  The  child  does  not  clearly  distinguish  him- 
self from  other  things,  hence  his  mental  states  are 
readily  projected  into  them.     He  thinks  of  other  things 


PARENTAL   AND    SOCIAL   INSTINCTS  121 

as  feeling  as  he  does,  hence  all  nature  seems  to  rejoice 
or  weep  with  him.  When  something  in  which  he  is 
interested  is  injured,  he  also  feels  the  injury  much  as 
if  it  were  himself.  The  child  is  thus,  in  a  way,  the  most 
sympathetic  of  beings,  because  he  is  identified  with 
everything  that  he  knows.  He  begs  that  relief  may  be 
given  as  if  he  himself  were  the  sufferer,  as  indeed  he 
is  to  a  considerable  extent. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  interested  in  himself  and 
his  own  actions,  it  is  often  hard  to  get  him  to  think  of 
any  one  else.  As  he  gets  a  Httle  older,  and  distinguishes 
more  clearly  between  his  own  experiences  and  those  of 
others,  the  individualistic  instinct  takes  the  lead,  and 
rarely  indeed  does  he  feel  an  impulse  to  take  suffering 
in  place  of  another. 

Again,  the  basis  of  a  child's  sympathy  is  his  own 
experience,  hence  he  is  often  indifferent  to  the  deepest 
joys  and  sorrows  of  adults,  though  very  sympathetic 
toward  those  who  are  annoyed  by  what  is  to  him  a 
cause  of  keen  suffering. 

In  order  to  have  sympathy  aroused,  one  must  not 
only  have  had  experience  of  the  kind  concerned,  but  his 
imagination  must  be  excited  so  that  he  puts  himself  in 
the  place  of  the  sufferer.  Boys  are  often  cruel,  not 
because  they  wish  to  cause  suffering,  but  merely  because 
they  enjoy  seeing  the  victim  make  queer  motions  with- 
out once  thinking  how  it  feels.  Sympathy,  therefore, 
depends  not  only  upon  experience,  but  also  upon  the 
imagination. 

(3)  Love  of  approbation  has  its  origin  in  the  race,  per- 
haps in  the  fact  that  approbation  of  mates  must  be 
sought,  since  the  animals  that  do  not  make  themselves 


122  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

agreeable  to  the  group  they  have  joined  are  Hkely  to  be 
driven  out  to  die.  At  any  rate,  the  desire  for  appro- 
bation is  very  strong  in  young  children,  even  when  not 
developed  by  experience.  The  tendency  to  reflect  the 
emotional  signs  and  feelings  of  others,  and  thus  to  share 
the  pleasure  or  disgust  of  the  one  observing  him,  is 
perhaps  the  basis  of  the  child's  desire  to  be  looked  upon 
with  favor.  The  desire  for  approval  never  dies  out, 
even  in  the  breast  of  the  most  hardened  criminal,  who 
is  often  a  hero  to  members  of  his  own  gang. 

Even  before  a  child  can  talk,  he  seems  to  be  affected 
by  words  of  approval  or  disapproval,  if  they  are  uttered 
in  the  appropriate  tone  of  voice  and  with  the  fitting 
gestures  and  expression  of  face.  When  the  fighting  or 
competitive  instinct  is  not  aroused,  the  child  is  very 
sensitive  to  expressions  of  approval  or  disapproval  from 
any  one  against  whom  he  feels  no  antagonism  at  the 
moment.  At  first  he  cares  most  for  approval  of  parents, 
later  of  teachers,  then  of  companions.  At  puberty  his 
ambitions  are  stirred  and  he  wishes  for  the  approval  not 
merely  of  individuals,  but  for  that  of  the  world  ;  in  other 
words,  he  wishes  to  make  a  name  and  become  famous. 
In  middle  life  most  men  care  more  for  their  reputation, 
or,  in  other  words,  for  the  opinion  others  have  of  them, 
than  for  their  own  personal  needs  and  individualistic 
desires.  So  strong  is  this  instinct  that  what  we  eat, 
wear,  read,  and  do,  are  largely  determined  by  it. 

Children  are  not  only  greatly  influenced  by  praise 
and  blame  ;  but  they  act,  to  a  considerable  extent,  as 
parents,  teachers,  and  others  expect  them  to  act.  Chil- 
dren thus  often  become  what  their  teachers  believe 
them  to  be,   and  many  a  boy  has  been  saved  by  the 


PARENTAL  AND   SOCIAL   INSTINCTS  1 23 

faith  reposed  in  him  by  teacher,  parent,  or  friend.  It 
is  therefore  very  important  that  educators  should  see 
the  good  in  children.  No  one  who  has  not  a  large  faith 
in  humanity,  and  in  the  possibilities  for  good  in  every  boy 
and  girl,  should  ever  enter  the  schoolroom  as  a  teacher. 

The  approval  of  companions  as  compared  with  that  of 
parents  and  teachers  gains  in  influence  with  advancing 
years.  The  approval  desired  is  not  merely  personal 
approval  of  individuals,  but  of  the  social  group  as  a 
whole.  In  other  words,  the  child  comes  to  have  more 
and  more  regard  for  the  public  sentiment  of  the  social 
group  to  which  he  belongs.  After  a  few  years  in  school 
the  public  sentiment  of  a  group  of  boys,  as  expressed 
in  taunts,  such  as,  "girl's  work,"  or  **  tied  to  mother's 
apron  string,"  is  a  more  powerful  stimulus  than  the 
words  or  even  the  blows  of  the  parent  or  teacher. 

In  the  early  years  parents  and  primary  teachers  who 
have  the  love  of  their  children  may  get  them  to  do 
almost  anything  by  appealing  to  the  desire  for  perso7ial 
approval ;  but  as  children  get  older  they  care  more  and 
more  for  the  public  sentiment  of  their  social  group. 
The  successful  grade  teacher  must  therefore  learn  to 
understand,  mould,  and  use  public  sentiment  in  govern- 
ing her  school ;  while  the  high  school  teacher  must  do 
the  same,  but  may  also  rely  upon  the  general  principles 
of  conduct  accepted  by  the  world. 

(4)  Altruism,  the  highest  form  of  the  social  instinct, 
is  shown  in  the  tendency  to  act  for  the  good  of  the 
social  group  of  which  one  is  a  part,  instead  of  merely 
seeking  their  companionship,  feeling  as  they  do,  or 
seeking  their  approval.  This  tendency  appears  more 
or  less  prominently  in  the  early  teens. 


124  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

At  this  time,  when  the  youth  first  becomes  capable 
of  contributing  to  the  life  of  the  race,  and  of  actually 
doing  something  for  the  group  to  which  he  belongs,  his 
ambitions  are  aroused,  and  he  dreams  and  plans  for 
great  deeds  and  great  honors.  The  desire  for  approval 
is  strong,  but  there  is  also  a  genuine  impulse  to  self- 
sacrifice.  Youths  in  all  ages  have  been  ready  to  risk 
life,  limb,  and  reputation,  not  chiefly  because  they  are 
ignorant  and  rash,  but  because  they  have  an  instinctive 
tendency  to  disregard  self  and  act  for  others. 

Youths  are  then  also  for  the  first  time  genuinely 
selfish,  since  if  a  selfish  act  is  done  now  it  may  be  in 
opposition  to  an  altruistic  impulse,  while  before  this 
it  had  involved  only  a  choice  between  immediate  and 
remote  pleasure  to  self.  True  selfishness  emerges  only 
when  both  the  lower  individualistic  and  the  higher 
altruistic  impulses  are  felt.  The  adolescent  may  there- 
fore be  the  most  selfish  or  the  most  self-sacrificing  of 
beings,  and  is  often  each  by  turns. 

The  development  of  the  impulse  to  social  service  is 
greatly  favored  by  experience  of  all  kinds  in  working 
with  others  for  common  ends.  In  such  activities  the 
individual's  life  is  enlarged,  and  in  contests  of  group 
with  group,  he  subordinates  his  personal  interests  to 
the  success  of  his  party,  thus  securing  the  broader 
pleasures  of  the  social  life. 

We  find,  then,  the  development  of  the  social  instinct 
marked  by  increased  regard  for  the  interests  of  others 
and  for  law.  Laws  come  to  mean  not  merely  the  rules 
of  action  which  bring  to  the  child  the  most  favorable 
results,  but  standards  of  conduct  to  be  conformed 
to,  whether  agreeable  to  self  or  not,  because  they  are 


PARENTAL   AND    SOCIAL   INSTINCTS  12$ 

for  the  good  of  the  social  group.  This  tendency  is 
shown  at  the  beginning  of  the  teens,  in  class  spirit  in 
the  school,  in  group  games  on  the  playground,  in  chil- 
dren's societies,  and  in  the  formation  of  gangs  on  the 
streets.  Rivalry  of  group  with  group  may  be  even  more 
fierce  than  ever  was  individual  rivalry  at  the  height  of 
the  individualistic  stage  of  development.  The  greater 
the  rivalry,  however,  between  groups,  the  greater  the 
class  spirit  within  the  groups. 

The  social  group,  whose  interests  are  regarded  and 
promoted  sometimes  by  self-sacrifice,  is  at  first  very 
small.  Only  slowly  does  the  social  impulse  broaden 
into  general  philanthropy  and  feeling  of  human  brother- 
hood. Class  spirit  is  a  phase  of  social  development  that 
needs  to  appear  in  a  radical  form  and  in  connection  with 
rivalry  as  a  preparation  for  the  higher  phases  of  social 
development.  It  should  therefore  be  encouraged,  but 
care  should  be  taken  that  there  shall  be  frequent  change 
and  enlargement  of  the  social  groups  engaged,  other- 
wise there  is  arrest  of  development,  narrow  prejudice, 
and  partisanship,  rather  than  broad  sympathy  and 
philanthropic  effort. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  strength  of  the  gregarious  in- 
stinct in  adults,  children,  and  animals.  Report  instances  of  showing 
effect  of  shyness  as  illustrations  of  the  social  instinct  in  children. 

2.  Give  examples  showing  desire  for  companionship  with  those 
of  one's  own  age,  ^d  the  advantages  of  such  companionship. 

3.  Describe  one  or  more  instances  of  chumming  you  have  known, 
and  the  effects  upon  each  of  the  chums. 

4.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  leader  ?  Should  every  child 
have  some  experience  as  a  leader  ?     How  may  he  get  it  ? 

5.  What  kind  of  chums  do  children  desire  ?  Report  observa- 
tions or  readings. 


126  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

6.  Does  being  an  only  child,  or  the  eldest  or  youngest  of  the 
family,  have  any  special  influence  on  development  ?     What  ? 

7.  Describe  instances  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  children. 

8.  Show  that  experience  and  imagination  are  necessary  to  sym- 
pathy. 

9.  Show  how  large  a  part  love  of  approbation  plays  in  social  life 
and  morals. 

10.  Show  how  the  teacher  may  utilize  the  love  of  approbation  of 
children. 

11.  In  what  grades  has  personal  approval  most  influence  ?     And 
in  what  grades  is  public  sentiment  more  potent  ? 

12.  Discuss  the  kinds  and  degrees  of  self-government  that  may 
best  be  used  at  diflferent  ages. 

13.  Illustrate  the  prominence  of  altruistic  ideals  in  the  teens  from 
experiment  or  observation. 

14.  Discuss  the  social  value,  to  yourself  and  others,  of  member- 
ship in  societies  of  various  kinds  to  which  you  or  they  have  belonged. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  significance  of  the  parental  and  social  instincts,  read  Drum- 
mond,  Ascent  of  Ma7i.  chaps,  viii  and  ix;  Ribot,  Psychology  of 
the  Emotiotis,  pp.  248-259,  275-289  ;  Small,  Fed.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII, 
pp.  13-68. 

On  the  general  problem  of  sex,  see  Geddes  and  Thomson,  Evolution 
of  Sex;  Ellis,  Man  and  lVo?nan  ;  Clark,  Sex  in  Education. 

On  the  sexual  and  social  characteristics  at  puberty,  see  Lancaster, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  61-128,  and  any  other  articles  on  •'  Adoles- 
cence."    See  also  Bell  on  "  Love  between  the  Sexes,"  A?n.  Jr 
Psych.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  235-254;    Brockman,  Ped.   Se?n.,  Vol 
IX,  pp.  255-276. 

On  information  regarding  sex  functions,  see  Hart,/r.  Ch.  and  Ad. 
April,  1902,  pp.  107-116;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
301-308,  and  the  best  of  the  books  described  in  the  latter  article 

On  boys'  clubs  and  other  social  activities  of  childhood,  see  Shel- 
don, Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  425-448  ;  Forbush,  Ped.  Se?n.. 
Vol.  VII,  pp.  307-346 ;  The  Boy  p7'oble}n,  chaps,  ii  and  iii ;  Buck, 
Boys'"  Self- Governing  Chibs  ;  Riis.  Children  of  the  Poor ^  ch3.p. 


PARENTAL  AND   SOCIAL  INSTINCTS  12/ 

xiii ;  Gladden,  ^'  The  Junior  Republic  at  Freeville,  Outlook,  Oct. 
31,  1896;  Shaw,  "Vacation  Camps  and  Boy  Republics,"  Rev. 
of  Rev. ^  May,  1896;  Johnson,  "Rudimentary  Society  Among 
'Boys,''''  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Studies,  republished  in  Teachers 
College  Record,  1901. 

On  chums,  see  Bonser,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  221-236;  and  on 
leadership,  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  295-298,  and 
on  only  child,  see  Bohannon,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  475-496. 

On  social  ideals  and  attitude  toward  law,  see  Barnes,  Studies  in 
Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  213-216,  254-258,  259-263,  Vol.  II,  pp.  5-30, 
37-40,  124-140,  141-150,  203-217,  218-230;  Sully,  Studies  in 
Childhood,  chap.  viii. 

On  the  development  of  the  social  consciousness  and  social  training, 
read  Monroe,  A^.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  921-928,  or  N.  W.  Mo.y 
Vol.  IX,  pp.  31-36;  Boone,  Ed.,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  395-401, 
Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  83-89,  270-276,  617-621  ;  Wiggin,  Children's 
Rights,  pp.  109-138,  1 71 -1 86. 

On  pity  and  sympathy  and  other  social  feelings,  see  Hall  and 
Saunders,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  534-591,  and  Ribot, 
Psychology  of  Emotions,  230-234,  Baldwin,  Vol.  II,  pp.  220- 
246,  Trac)',  pp.  55-59.  See  also  Hugh  on  "  Animism  of  Chil- 
dren," iV.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  450-453,  Vol.  X,  pp.  71-74; 
Hall  and  Smith,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  159-199;  Jones,  Psych, 
Rev.  Supple.,  Vol.  V,  No.  5. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — IMITATION 

CHARACTERISTICS    OF    IMITATION    IN    CHILDREN 

In  general,  we  think  of  acts  as  imitative  when  they 
reproduce  acts  that  have  been  observed  by  the  performer. 
The  psychological  basis  of  imitation  is  the  general  ten- 
dency of  the  idea  of  an  action  to  result  in  the  action. 
In  imitation  the  idea  of  the  act  comes  more  or  less 
directly  from  the  perception  of  the  act  as  performed  by 
another.  It  is  imitative  just  in  proportion  as  the  idea 
and  the  impulse  are  derived  from  the  perception  of  the 
act. 

If  a  hungry  child  begins  eating  when  he  sees  some  one 
else  eating,  the  act  is  not  properly  imitative,  for  the 
child  knows  what  eating  is,  how  to  eat,  and  has  a  ten- 
dency to  eat,  while  the  sight  of  some  one  else  eating 
does  nothing  but  suggest  the  idea,  which  would  probably 
be  aroused  just  as  effectually  by  the  sight  of  food  or 
even  by  the  utterance  of  the  word  *'  dinner  "  or  the  sound 
of  the  dinner  bell.  If,  however,  a  child  tries  to  eat 
like  some  one  else,  the  mode  of  eating  is  imitative  be- 
cause the  idea  of  hoiv  to  act  is  gotten  from  the  observa- 
tion of  the  act.  If  a  child  eats  when  not  Imngry,  or  eats 
something  he  does  not  like  because  he  sees  another 
eating,  the  act  is  imitative,  because  the  impulse  to  per- 
form it  results  from  observing  its  performance.  When 
K  129 


I30  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

a  child  makes  a  new  sound  that  he  has  heard,  or  tries 
to  pack  a  trunk  after  seeing  for  the  first  time  some  one 
else  do  it,  the  act  is  imitative  in  a  greater  degree  than  in 
the  preceding ;  for  the  idea  of  the  act,  how  to  do  it,  and 
the  impulse  to  perform  it  are  all  the  result  of  observing 
its  performance. 

Many  of  the  child's  acts  are  imitative  in  this  sense, 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  true  of  many  animals. 
Chickens,  cats,  rats,  and  dogs  may  run  toward  food  or 
away  from  danger,  or  begin  searching  for  food  at  sight 
of  companions  doing  the  same,  or  make  noises  in  re- 
sponse to  noises  made  by  their  kind,  and  such  acts  are 
often  called  imitative ;  but  the  animals  know  how  to  do 
these  things  and  have  a  tendency  to  do  them,  and  per- 
ceiving them  done  by  another  merely  suggests  the  idea 
without  modifying  its  form  or  giving  it  much  impulsive 
force.  Thorndike  and  Small  found  that  animals  which 
observed  their  mates  do  7tew  things,  such  as  opening  a 
cage,  did  not  learn  more  quickly  to  do  them  than  those 
that  had  no  such  chance  for  observation.  Trainers  of 
dogs  and  horses  for  show  purposes  also  depend  but  very 
little  upon  imitation.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  imi- 
tative tendency  is  not  strong  enough  in  most  animals  to 
cause  them  to  perform  new  acts  they  have  observed, 
but  only  to  suggest  the  doing  of  things  to  which  they 
already  have  a  tendency,  and  perhaps  to  modify  the 
mode  of  doing  (as  in  the  case  of  birds  learning  to  sing). 

Children,  however,  have  a  strong  tendency  to  observe 
and  perform  new  acts ;  hence  imitation  is  an  important 
means  of  widening  their  experience  and  fitting  them  for 
various  activities  and  conditions.  In  most  animals  imi- 
tation does  little  more  than  specialize  and  develop  ten- 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  IMITATION  13I 

dencies  already  possessed  in  some  degree,  in  ways  that 
will  favor  survival ;  while  in  children  it  leads  to  an 
almost  infinite  variety  of  action  and  adaptation  to  vary- 
ing conditions. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    IMITATIVE    ACTS    OF    CHILDREN 

(i)  Reflex  imitation  is  shown  when  a  child  is  caused 
to  do  something  he  has  a  physiological  tendency  to  do 
by  perceiving  the  act  performed  by  another.  Yawning, 
crying,  laughing,  and  other  emotional  expressions,  which 
may  be  reproduced  by  children  in  the  first  half  year,  are 
of  this  class.  The  stimulus  to  reflex  imitation  is  largely 
sensory. 

(2)  Spontaneous  imitation  is  shown  when  acts  not 
provided  for  by  other  instincts  are  reproduced  without 
any  purpose  other  than  the  all-suflficient  and  uncon- 
scious one  of  an  impulse  to  reproduce  and  to  experience 
subjectively  what  has  been  observed  objectively.  The 
stimulus  is  usually  a  perception  of  some  kind.  Every- 
thing, from  the  crowing  of  chickens  to  the  whistle  of 
a  locomotive,  from  the  wrigghng  of  a  snake  to  the 
preaching  of  a  sermon,  is  imitated.  Nothing  in  his 
environment,  physical  or  social,  escapes  the  child ;  he 
absorbs  and  makes  it  all  a  part  of  himself  by  reproduc- 
ing, and  thus  getting  a  subjective  knowledge  of  it. 
For  three  or  four  years  this  form  of  the  instinct  is 
dominant. 

(3)  Dramatic  or  constructive  imitation  is  closely 
allied  to  the  spontaneous,  and  differs  from  it  chiefly  in 
that  the  child  now  finds  his  own  mode  of  reproducing 
or  representing  ideas.  Images  of  previous  perceptions 
are  the  usual  stimuU.      As  in   spontaneous  imitation, 


132  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

there  is  no  purpose  outside  of  the  act  itself.  Things 
heard  or  read,  as  well  as  those  observed,  are  imitated ; 
but  the  reproductions  are  not  literal.  Persons,  animals, 
stones,  and  blocks  are  transformed  in  various  v^ays  by 
the  imagination,  and  made  to  aid  in  the  representations. 
Symbols  and  images  thus  take  the  place  of  real  person- 
alities and  acts. 

(4)  Voluntary  imitation  or  imitation  for  a  purpose 
appears  when  a  child  reproduces  an  act,  not  for  its  own 
sake,  but  to  gain  some  end,  as  when  a  child  imitates  a 
word  he  has  heard  in  order  to  get  what  he  wants,  or 
tries  to  walk  like  some  one  else  to  make  people  laugh, 
or  tries  to  handle  a  spoon  or  pencil  as  some  one  else 
does,  in  order  that  he  may  eat  or  write  successfully. 
This  form  of  imitation  is  concerned  merely  with  how  to 
imitate  or  represent.  The  impulse  depends  upon  the 
end  to  be  gained,  and  not  upon  the  mere  perception  of 
the  act.  Voluntary  imitation  is  always  more  or  less 
analytic  and  synthetic,  attention  being  directed  to  the 
parts  of  the  process,  and  to  the  order  of  combination  or 
synthesis.  Memory  images  are  the  guides  in  voluntary 
imitation.  When  a  child  imitates  spontaneously  the 
act  of  writing,  he  simply  takes  the  pencil  and  scratches 
around  with  it ;  but  when  he  voluntarily  imitates  the 
drawing  of  another,  he  watches  his  successive  move- 
ments and  tries  to  reproduce  them. 

Voluntary  imitation  is  a  different  act  from  spontane- 
ous imitation,  as  was.  most  strikingly  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  a  child  who,  before  the  close  of  the  first  year, 
reproduced  with  phonographic  exactness  every  word 
she  heard ;  but  later,'  when  she  tried  to  use  words 
voluntarily  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought,  she  went 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  133 

through  the  usual  stages  of  mispronunciation.  Not 
often  is  this  so  marked ;  but  every  observer  of  children 
knows  that  children  who  spontaneously  imitate  the 
tones  of  those  they  hear  speak  and  read,  often  find  it 
difficult  or  impossible  to  do  so  voluntarily  in  response 
to  a  request.  Every  one  can  laugh  or  cry  spontaneously, 
but  few  can  do  so  voluntarily. 

(5)  Idealistic  imitation  is  that  form  of  imitation  in 
which  there  is  an  attempt  to  act  according  to  a  copy 
or  standard  conceived  as  correct  and  desirable.  It  is 
guided  by  concepts.  It  is  an  attempt,  not  to  reproduce 
or  represent  any  one  act  or  object,  but  to  produce  an 
ideal  derived  from  these  numerous  particulars.  Such 
ideals,  whether  social,  aesthetic,  moral,  or  religious,  are 
naturally  formed  and  imitated  not  from  a  study  of  their 
expression  in  the  form  of  general  truths,  but  as  shown 
in  concrete  acts  and  objects. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    IMITATION 

The  different  varieties  of  imitation  combine  and  over- 
lap so  that  detailed  and  exact  statements  cannot  be 
made ;  but  the  general  order  of  prominence  is  evidently 
that  in  which  they  have  been  named. 

(i)  Reflex  imitation  is  the  only  form  of  imitation 
until  the  second  half  of  the  first  year.  Later  it  is 
obscured,  but  remains  all  through  life  as  an  important 
form  of  suggestion.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  good 
humor  and  bad  humor,  politeness  and  rudeness,  careful- 
ness and  carelessness,  are  "catching."  All  persons, 
but  especially  children,  are  like  mirrors  reflecting  back 
what  they  observe,  responding  to  smiles  with  smiles, 
and  to  irritable  words  with  shnilar  words  and  actions. 


134       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

The  personality  and  mood  of  each  person  is  mani- 
fested in  some  degree  in  his  face,  voice,  and  actions, 
and  the  child  reproduces  refiexly  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  every  such  manifestation,  and  is  himself 
modified  by  it.  If  several  children  are  together,  each 
acts  reflexly  on  the  others.  The  teacher  who  comes 
into  the  room  in  the  morning  in  an  irritable  mood,  soon 
infects  some  of  her  children,  and  these  others.  She  is 
therefore  confronted  ere  long  by  an  irritable  and  irritat- 
ing school ;  while  the  teacher  who  has  entered  the  room 
with  cheerful  good  humor  and  kindly  feeling,  is  soon 
surrounded  by  a  joyous  group  of  children  eager  to  follow 
her  leading  and  respond  pleasantly  to  her  slightest 
suggestion. 

(2)  Spontaneous  imitation  usually  becomes  very  promi- 
nent the  latter  part  of  the  first  year.  Although  con- 
cerned with  new  acquisitions,  reflex  imitation  is  often 
combined  with  it,  as  when  the  tone  in  which  a  new 
word  is  uttered  is  reproduced  as  well  as  its  pronuncia- 
tion. In  fact,  the  early  imitations  of  words  are  often 
merely  imitations  of  tones  and  inflections  of  voice  rather 
than  of  specific  sounds.  This  is  probably  due  to  the 
early  development  of  reflex  emotional  expression. 

Sometimes  the  early  spontaneous  imitations  are  of 
single  sounds  and  gestures,  and  sometimes  of  more 
complex  acts.  My  little  girl  imitated  acts  at  first,  as 
poking  the  fire,  packing  a  box,  driving  a  nail,  but  never 
gestures,  such  as  raising  the  hand,  nodding  the  head. 
Neither  did  she  imitate  words  as  such,  but  only  the 
act  of  speaking  on  occasion.  Children  frequently  repro- 
duce sounds  Hke  a  phonograph,  and  gestures,  like  a 
shadow,  sometimes  without  ceasing  their  play  to  do  so. 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  135 

In  no  case,  however,  is  spontaneous  imitation  analytic 
and  synthetic.     It  is  always  of  wholes,  large  or  small. 

The  value  of  spontaneous  imitation  lies  in  the  great 
amount  of  material  accumulated  in  the  form  of  knowl- 
edge and  power  of  movement,  which  may  be  used  or 
analyzed  and  combined,  then  used  in  future  actions  for 
a  purpose.  The  knowledge  thus  acquired  is  of  immense 
extent  and  of  the  most  fundamental  character,  for  it  is 
subjective  as  well  as  objective.  The  child  learns  to 
know  movements  and  sounds  not  only  as  they  are  seen 
and  heard,  but  also  as  they  are  felt  when  performed  or 
uttered,  and  he  can  not  only  recognize  them,  but  also 
control  them.  Thus  by  spontaneous  imitation  he  makes 
the  world  his  own  and  obtains  control  of  it. 

Although  so  various,  spontaneous  imitations  are  not 
the  result  of  chance.  Nothing  is  imitated  that  does 
not  attract  the  attention.  Attention  is  determined  by  the 
prominent  instincts  or  experiences  as  they  appear  in 
the  life  of  the,  developing  child  ;  hence,  the  spontaneous 
imitations  of  each  age  are  indications  of  the  stage  of 
development  that  has  been  reached.  The  investigations 
of  Frear  indicate  that  young  children  spontaneously 
imitate  animals  and  children,  while  in  the  majority  of 
cases  older  children  voluntarily  imitate  older  persons. 

At  about  three  years  of  age  contrary  siLggcstiori  often 
appears,  and  at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals,  controls 
the  child's  action.  The  child  seems  to  be  surfeited 
with  taking  into  himself  and  reproducing  from  his  sur- 
roundings. He  therefore  asserts  his  own  individuality, 
which  has  heretofore  been  merged  in  whatever  he 
imxitated,  and  refuses  to  follow  the  copy  set  before  him. 
He  not  only  refuses  to  do  what  others  do,  and  what  it  is 


136  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

suggested  that  he  shall  do,  but  as  far  as  possible  does 
just  the  opposite  of  what  the  imitative  impulse  would 
impel  him  to  do.  Usually  these  attacks  are  inter- 
mittent ;  but  if  unsuccessful  attempts  are  made  to  forci- 
bly suppress  them,  they  may  become  chronic,  especially 
if  the  child  is  not  in  perfect  health.  If  no  notice  is 
taken  of  such  attacks  of  contrary  suggestion  or  self- 
assertion,  or  if  they  are  vigorously  suppressed  instead 
of  combated  just  enough  to  develop  them,  they  are 
likely  to  soon  yield  to  the  more  fundamental  impulse 
of  positive  suggestion  or  imitation. 

Spontaneous  imitation  develops  not  only  by  becoming 
more  complete,  and  being  concerned  with  more  com- 
plex acts,  but  by  appearing  in  response  to  mental  images 
as  well  as  to  direct  perceptions.  Words,  gestures,  and 
processes  observed  yesterday  are  reproduced  to-day  as 
spontaneously  and  accurately  as  if  just  perceived. 

(3)  When  the  above  stage  of  spontaneous  imitation 
is  reached,  dramatic  imitation  usually  begins.  Dramatic 
imitations  are  not  clearly  differentiated  in  the  mind  of 
the  child,  or  easily  distinguished  by  the  adult  observer 
from  spontaneous  imitations.  In  purely  spontaneous 
imitation  the  child  reproduces  literally,  as  well  as  he 
can,  what  he  has  observed,  while  in  dramatic  imitation 
he  does  not.  Sometimes,  however,  he  forgets  that  he 
is  only  making  believe,  and  screams  with  terror  at  the 
attacks  of  a  make-believe  bear  or  weeps  over  the  mis- 
haps of  the  make-believe  baby  or  kitty,  or  actually  chews 
the  make-believe  bread,  or  is  really  worried  by  the  idea 
that  he  is  going  to  be  left  by  the  imaginary  car,  or  cries 
with  the  pain  of  an  imaginary  burn  or  stomach  ache. 
Usually,  however,  there  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  under- 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  1 37 

consciousness  of  the  make-believe  character  of  it  all, 
which,  as  long  as  it  remains,  heightens  the  pleasure  of 
trying  to  make  it  seem  real. 

Dramatic  imitation  greatly  increases  the  possibilities 
of  varied  development,  for  much  of  what  the  child 
observes  or  hears  involves  actions  or  objects  unattain- 
able to  him.  There  is  nothing,  however,  from  the 
noises  and  movements  of  a  locomotive  to  the  silent  art 
of  Jack  Frost,  or  from  making  a  pie  to  constructing  a 
church,  from  burglary  to  a  fashionable  tea-party,  that 
the  child  cannot  imitate  by  the  use  of  make-beUeve 
objects  and  symboHc  movements.  The  essentials  of 
every  process  and  action  in  the  heavens  above  and  the 
earth  beneath,  of  which  the  child  sees  or  hears,  are  made 
familiar  to  him  in  his  dramatic  imitations.  He  learns 
something  of  every  custom  of  society,  and  every  trade 
and  profession,  by  the  short-cut  application  of  that  most 
important  of  all  pedagogical  laws,  "  learning  to  do  by 
doing,"  which  is  also  the  only  sure  way  of  learning  to 
understand. 

What  a  change  would  result  if  this  dramatic  power 
and  tendency  to  imitation  could  be  more  frequently, 
sensibly,  and  effectually  utilized  in  the  kindergarten 
and  school.  In  its  very  nature,  dramatic  imitation  is 
spontaneous  and  original;  hence  any  attempt  at  syste- 
matic control  of  it  must,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  almost 
inevitably  prove  artificial  and  ineffective.  The  wise 
teacher  merely  stirs  the  imagination,  supplies  the  mate- 
rial for  dramatic  representation,  and  gives  occasional 
suggestions  as  they  are  needed.  For  example,  some 
sixth-grade  children,  who  were  taught  geography  in 
such  a  way  that  with  very  little  help  and   suggestion 


138  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

they  eagerly  presented  in  character  the  different  races, 
in  costumes  which  they  had  made,  gained  more  of  real 
development  than  in  a  term  of  formal  memorizing. 

Froebel  did  well  to  recognize  the  dramatic  tendency 
in  children ;  but  his  followers  have  often  done  ill  to  use 
the  particular  processes  and  occupations  given  by  him, 
at  stated  times,  instead  of  those  most  common  and  inter- 
esting in  the  child's  environment,  and  at  the  most  favor- 
able times. 

The  dramatic  tendency  usually  begins  in  the  third 
year  and  continues  all  through  life,  but  is  at  its  climax 
from  about  four  to  seven.  During  this  time  the  child 
not  only  transforms  objects,  but  persons,  including  him- 
self, into  whatever  his  fancy  dictates  or  his  dramatic 
play  demands.  He  assumes  the  part  of  some  other  per- 
son, or  of  an  animal,  and  perhaps  for  days  at  a  time 
acts  out  the  character  to  some  extent,  and  insists  upon 
being  called  by  the  name  of  the  person  or  animal  repre- 
sented. So  great  is  the  tendency  to  represent  by  sub- 
stitution, that  even  words  are  made  to  serve  new  purposes, 
as  "yes  "  to  mean  "no."  Sometimes  the  child  at  once 
forgets  the  arrangement  he  has  made;  then  again  he 
adheres  to  it  for  days  or  weeks,  and  insists  that  others 
do  so. 

This  is  the  age  also  for  the  creation  of  imaginary  com- 
panions, and  a  careful  study  of  the  matter  will  probably 
show  that  not  only  do  a  few  lonely  and  highly  imagina- 
tive children  have  these  companions,  but  nearly  all  chil- 
dren have  them  in  some  form,  for  a  greater  or  less  period 
of  time.  It  is  only  one  step  from  representing  persons 
by  blocks  to  representing  them  in  the  mind  without  any 
tangible  object.    These  imaginary  companions  frequently 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  1 39 

appear  in  the  third  year  when  the  child  is  getting 
acquainted  with  his  own  variable  personality,  which  is 
sometimes  "  nice  "  and  sometimes  "  naughty,"  or  in  con- 
nection with  early  experiences  with  a  playmate  who  is 
not  present  all  of  the  time,  or  after  hearing  of  a  little 
boy  or  girl  of  a  certain  character.  Sometimes  the  imagi- 
nary companion  is  an  ideal  self,  sometimes  a  naughty 
scapegrace,  and  at  other  times  not  self  at  all,  but  a  dis- 
tinct personality.  The  same  child  may  have  many  such 
companions  at  once,  or  one  at  a  time  in  succession. 
Where  the  phenomenon  continues,  as  it  sometimes 
does,  into  adult  life,  it  often  takes  the  form  of  a  con- 
tinued story,  in  which  the  imaginary  characters  figure, 
and  perhaps  grow  older  as  their  creator  does. 

Curiously  enough,  during  this  make-believe  age,  the 
child  is  the  most  literal  of  beings  as  well  as  the  most 
imaginative.  Left  to  himself,  he  often  has  a  wonderful 
perception  of  the  essential  truths  symbolized  ;  but  when 
something  is  presented  to  him  in  symbolic  form,  and  he 
has  no  experience  corresponding  to  that  symbolized,  his 
ideas  are  surprisingly  literal  and  materialistic.  For  this 
reason  religious  instruction  often  produces  in  the  child's 
mind  a  gross  caricature  of  holy  things.  For  example, 
a  boy  did  not  want  to  be  Jesus'  "  little  lamb,"  because  he 
would  then  have  to  eat  grass.  Myths  and  fairy  stories 
also  often  fail  to  teach  the  truth  intended,  because  the 
truths  symbolized  have  not  been  experienced  by  the 
child. 

(4)  Voluntary  imitation  appears  in  the  second  or  third 
year,  but  does  not  become  prominent  for  several  years. 
When  a  child,  instead  of  freely  repeating  over  and  over 
the  same  sound  in  the  same  way,  tries  again  and  again 


140  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

to  speak  a  word  as  another  does,  each  time  changing 
his  pronunciation  a  Uttle  and  getting  nearer  the  correct 
form,  we  have  an  example  of  voluntary  imitation,  because 
it  is  performed,  not  for  the  pleasure  of  the  act,  but  to 
secure  the  approval  that  follows  its  successful  perform- 
ance, or  the  pleasure  of  being  understood.  Since,  as  we 
have  defined  it,  voluntary  imitation  is  for  a  purpose,  it 
is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  mode  of  performance. 

Whenever  a  child  is  trying  to  find  out  how  to  do  an 
act,  he  is  very  ready  to  voluntarily  imitate  any  mode  of 
performing  it  that  he  sees.  It  is  also  much  easier  for  a 
child  to  imitate  the  performance  of  an  act  than  it  is  to 
form  an  idea  from  a  description  of  how  it  is  to  be  done 
and  then  do  it.  Voluntary  imitation  is,  therefore,  one  of 
the  most  important  means  of  instruction,  especially  with 
young  children.  They  can  learn  by  watching  how  a 
thing  is  done,  in  a  fourth  the  time  required  to  learn 
it  by  being  told  how  it  should  be  done.  This  is  true 
not  only  of  manual  but  also  of  purely  intellectual  pro- 
cesses. A  child  learns  to  add  or  use  good  language  by 
imitation  better  than  by  rule.  Imitation  might,  there- 
fore, very  frequently  be  substituted  for  directions  and 
rules.  With  younger  children  the  imitations  should  be 
largely  spontaneous,  while  with  older  ones  it  should  be 
voluntary,  and  with  still  older  children  should  be  followed 
by  analysis  leading  to  specific  directions  or  rules.  Where 
the  process  is  complex,  some  analysis  is  helpful  in  learn- 
ing it ;  but  the  analysis  should  be  simply  into  parts  or 
simpler  wholes  that  the  child  can  grasp,  rather  than  into 
separate  elements  such  as  the  scientist  is  able  to  detect. 
Most  of  the  practice  should  also  be  upon  the  whole  pro- 
cess rather  than  upon  the  elements. 


ADAFllVE   INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  141 

In  using  voluntary  imitation  educationally  it  is  not 
best  to  merely  give  models  for  imitation.  On  the  con- 
trary, voluntary  imitation  should  be  simply  a  means  of 
accomplishing  successfully  something  that  the  child 
already  has  a  desire  to  perform.  The  great  defect  in 
teaching  has  been  too  much  analysis  of  processes  into 
elements,  and  too  wide  a  separation  of  processes  from 
the  ends  they  are  fitted  to  secure,  so  that  the  natural 
motives  for  learning  are  destroyed. 

Unquestionably  it  is  the  function  of  the  school  in  pre- 
paring the  child  for  the  work  of  life  to  develop  the 
power  of  voluntary  effort,  and  this  means  at  first  chiefly 
the  power  of  voluntary  imitation  ;  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  spontaneous  imitation  should  not  be  utilized,  or  that 
the  child  should  be  required  to  voluntarily  imitate  what 
he  has,  as  yet,  no  motive  for  learning  to  do.  The  child 
acquires  the  power  and  tendency  to  persistent  effort  by 
the  act  of  persisting  in  what  he  attempts ;  and  if  he  can 
be  held  to  a  task  by  the  desire  to  learn  how,  in  order 
that  he  may  do  something  that  he  wishes  to  do,  the 
motive  is  a  natural  one  and  far  more  effective  than 
those  arising  from  artificial  punishments  or  rewards. 

(5)  Idealistic  imitation,  which  is  a  sort  of  generaliza- 
tion from  all  other  kinds,  begins  perhaps  in  the  third  or 
fourth  year  when  a  child  has  formed  some  idea  of  objects 
and  acts  that  are  "pretty"  or  ''nice."  A  little  girl  of 
four  who  admired  a  little  girl  in  a  story  who  always 
walked  and  talked  quietly  and  nicely,  imitated  her  and 
apparently  thought  of  her  as  an  ideal.  In  a  similar  way, 
a  boy  of  three  seemed  to  have  a  pretty  good  idea  of 
"  Papa's  Jolly  Boy,"  and  sometimes  when  not  feeling 
well  made  considerable  effort  to  smile  and  look  pleasant 


142  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

under  the  inspiration  of  that  ideal.  Such  idealistic  imi- 
tation is,  however,  largely  a  matter  of  training  till  the 
teens  are  reached. 

Spontaneous  imitation  leads  the  child  to  imitate  every- 
thing that  attracts  his  notice,  whether  profanity  or  prayer, 
caresses  or  cruelty,  rudeness  or  poHteness.  There  is  little 
or  no  selection  of  the  more  admirable  for  imitation  except 
as  it  is  presented  more  often  or  made  attractive  by  the 
approval,  cooperation,  or  help  of  others.  In  the  home, 
at  school,  and  on  the  playground  some  selection  of  ideals, 
leading  to  their  imitation,  is  brought  about  by  the  attitude 
and  actions  of  parents,  teachers,  and  companions ;  but 
for  the  most  part  children  imitate  certain  ideals  of  con- 
duct not  so  much  because  the  ideal  itself  appeals  to  them, 
as  because  adherence  to  it  secures  the  approbation  of 
others,  and  ignoring  it,  their  disapproval  and  perhaps 
punishment.  These  ideals  are  built  up  and  strengthened 
by  stories  of  persons  performing  admirable  actions  and 
receiving  praise  and  reward,  and  of  the  opposite  results 
from  the  performance  of  bad  actions.  The  ideals 
admired  and  imitated  by  the  child  are  not  his  own,  but 
those  of  his  people  and  his  times. 

This  remains  true,  in  large  measure,  till  the  child 
reaches  his  teens,  when  he  begins  to  find  that  within 
himself  which  responds  with  admiration  or  disgust, 
to  certain  deeds,  acts,  and  objects.  It  is  no  longer 
merely  his  own  interests  or  the  opinion  of  others  that 
arouse  the  feelings,  but  something  within  himself  that 
reaches  out  toward  or  draws  back  from  certain  objects 
and  acts,  regardless  of  consequence.  This  is  emphati- 
cally the  age  of  ideals  and  of  hero-worship.  Now,  if 
ever,  the  individual  is  stirred  by  ideals  of  the  strong  and 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  143 

true,  the  beautiful  and  the  good.  Spontaneous  imitation, 
and  past  and  present  example  and  training,  still  have 
their  influence  upon  the  selection  of  ideals  for  imitation, 
but  not,  as  formerly,  entire  control.  In  this  stage  of  fer- 
ment and  change  from  which  is  to  emerge  a  more  or  less 
unified  and  permanent  individuality,  there  is  developed 
an  inner  principle  of  selection  that  results  in  the  forma- 
tion of  ideals  for  imitation.  It  is  not  a  mere  selection, 
as  formerly,  of  certain  objects,  persons,  and  acts  for 
imitation,  but  a  selection,  from  various  sources,  of  quali- 
ties that  appeal  to  the  individual,  and  a  combination  of 
them  into  standards  and  rules  of  conduct. 

Often  the  youth  forms  ideals  without  at  once  imitating 
them.  He  feels  their  worth,  but  has  not  the  force  of 
will  to  realize  them  in  his  acts.  Usually,  after  a  period 
of  variable  action,  the  ideals  or  the  habits  are  modified 
so  as  to  bring  them  more  nearly  into  harmony,  and  the 
character  of  the  developing  man  is  pretty  firmly  estab- 
lished at  a  higher  or  lower  level,  according  to  the  kind 
of  ideals  formed  and  imitated.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  gulf  between  approved  ideals  and  practice  results  in 
a  permanent  division  of  personality,  in  which  one  phase 
of  it,  then  the  other,  dominates,  as  in  "  Dr.  Jekyll  and 
Mr.  Hyde."  This  condition  is  much  more  Hkely  to 
result  when  children  have  either  been  led  to  form  high 
ideals  without  being  induced  to  imitate  them,  or  when 
they  have  been  compelled  to  act  according  to  certain 
standards  which  they  have  not  been  led  to  approve. 
If  the  child  has  learned  to  both  admire  and  imitate  his 
ideals,  and  if  these  ideals  are  merely  deepened  and 
broadened  but  not  fundamentally  changed  during  the 
transition  period,  then  there  is  no  break  in  the  develop- 


144  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ment ;  but  the  new  element  that  comes  into  the  youth's 
life  merely  perfects  and  completes  what  was  begun 
before  the  age  of  transition. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Describe  instances  of  imitation  and  indicate  in  each  case  how 
far  perception  of  what  is  imitated  gives  any  or  all  of  these :  (i)  the 
idea  of  the  act ;  (2)  of  how  to  do  it ;  (3)  the  impulse  to  perform  it. 

2.  Give  examples  of  imitation  in  animals  and  compare  with  imi- 
tations of  children,  showing  the  difference. 

3.  Show  how  imitations  by  children  lead  to  many  adaptations, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  the  gaining  of  much  valuable  knowledge  and 
experience. 

4.  Give  original  illustrations  of  each  class  of  imitations. 

5.  State  the  order  and  the  ages  at  which  the  different  kinds  of 
imitation  become  prominent. 

6.  Show  the  importance  of  reflex  imitation  in  school.  Is  there 
any  reason  for  objecting  to  the  presence  of  stammering  or  nervous 
children  in  school  ?  Can  a  noisy,  unsystematic  teacher  teach 
children  to  be  quiet  and  orderly  ?     Why  ? 

7.  Show  how  spontaneous  imitation  prepares  for  the  doing  of 
useful  acts  in  the  future. 

8.  Give  illustrations  of  contrariness  as  opposed  to  imitativeness 
in  children. 

9.  Give  examples  of  dramatic  imitation  that  you  engaged  in  as 
a  child  or  have  observed  in  other  children. 

10.  Give  examples  of  the  ways  in  which  dramatic  imitation  may 
be  utilized  in  school. 

1 1 .  Describe  imaginary  companions  that  you  have  had  or  that 
you  know  of  other  children  having. 

12.  Give  illustrations  of  symbolism  that  children  have  or  have 
not  appreciated. 

13.  Show  how  voluntary  imitation  may  best  be  used  in  gymnastics, 
drawing,  writing,  word  building,  etc.,  indicating  parts  that  need  spe- 
cial practice,  and  the  motives  to  imitate,  that  may  be  appealed  to. 
Should  a  teacher  seek  to  secure  good  vocal  expression  in  reading 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — IMITATION  1 45 

bv  much  use  of  voluntan-  imitation,  or  should  she  depend  on  spon- 
taneous imitation  and  natural  emotional  expression  ?     Why  ? 

14.  Describe  your  idealistic  imitations  at  different  ages. 

15.  Show  why  ideals  are  especially  important  during  the  adoles- 
cent period,  and  indicate  a  variety  of  means  that  may  help  in  the  for- 
mation of  high  ones. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  imitation  in  animals,  see  Thorndike,  Animal  Intelligence^  pp. 
47-64;  Monograph  Suppl.  to  Psych.  Rev.,  No.  15;  Mill,  .4;«- 
7nal  Intelligence,  pp.  163-164;  Small,  Atn.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  160-164 ;  Kinnaman,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  196-200. 

On  the  nature  and  signiticance  of  imitation,  see  Baldwin,  Century, 
Vol.  XLIX,  pp.  160-164:  Mental  Development,  Vol.  l,pp.  263- 
278;  Royce,  Century,  Vol.  XLVIII,  pp.  137-145  ;  Psych.  Rev., 
Vol.  II,  pp.  217-235  ;  Ellwood,  Am.  Jr.  Sociology,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
721-741. 

On  suggestion  and  early  imitations,  see  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  104- 
134;  Preyer,  Senses  and  Will,  chap,  xii ;  Tracy,  pp.  102-103; 
Compayre,  Vol.  II,  pp.  i-i7- 

For  descriptions  and  discussions  of  what  children  imitate,  see 
Haskell,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  30-45,  or  Child  Observations, 
Fre7\r,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol  IV,  pp.  382-386;  Sudborough,  JV.  M^. 
Mo.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  99,  136,  162,  226.  300,  352:  Waldo,  Ch.  S. 
Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  75-87- 

On  choice  and  imitation  of  ideals,  see  Barnes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  243-253, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  243-270;  Chambers,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,pp.  101-143, 
and  references  given  by  the  latter. 

On  imaginary  companions,  see  Barnes.  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
98-101  ;  Learoyd,  Am.  Jr.  Psych..  Vol.  VII.  pp.  86-90. 

On  imitation  in  relation  to  education,  Deahl,  Imitation  in  Education, 
Columbia  Univ.  Contrib.  to  Philos.,  1900,  pp.  103  ;  Van  Liew, 
N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  320-327  ;  Ledyard,  N.  E.  A.,  1899, 
pp.  547-551  ;  Harris,  A^.  E.  A.,  1894,  pp.  637-641. 


CHAPTER   IX 

DEVELOPMENT   OF  ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS —  PLAY 
THEORY    OF    PLAY 

The  older  theory  set  forth  by  Spencer  considers  ) 
play  to  be  the  activity  by  which  surplus  energy  is  / 
used.  If  we  conceive  of  surplus  energy  as  meaning 
superabundance  of  energy,  the  theory  is  not  true  to  the 
facts,  for  children  must  be  very  sick  or  tired  before  the 
play  impulse  disappears.  If,  however,  the  word  ''  sur- 
plus "  is  taken  to  mean,  in  a  general  way,  the  energy 
which  is  most  easily  set  free,  then  play  may  properly 
be  looked  upon  as  the  activity  by  which  such  energy 
is  most  likely  to  be  utilized. 

The  more  recent  discussions  of  play,  especially  those 
of  Groos,  have  emphasized  its  instinctive  character. 
It  is  shown  that  young  animals  of  all  kinds  have  the 
play  impulse,  and  that  the  form  of  the  play  is  related 
to  the  instincts  of  the  animal.  In  general,  the  animal 
uses  the  same  powers  that  his  ancestors  have  used  in 
gaining  food,  avoiding  enemies,  and  securing  the  per- 
petuation of  the  species,  and  thus  exercises  the  powers 
he  will  himself  need  to  use  when  no  longer  protected 
by  paternal  care.  Each  instinct  as  it  appears  is  thus 
developed  and  perfected  by  playful  activity  before  it 
needs  to  be  used  seriously. 

147 


148  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

These  two  theories  need  to  be  combined.  In  play 
there  must  always  be  some  energy  that  is  surplus  in 
the  sense  that  it  may  be  used  in  other  ways  than  to 
obtain  necessary  ends.  The  activities  that  are  most 
readily  initiated  are  of  parts  that  have  most  available 
energy,  either  because  they  are  growing  and  developing 
or  are  less  fatigued  than  other  parts.  The  way  in  which 
the  active  parts  are  used,  depends  upon  the  openness 
of  certain  "  paths "  connecting  them,  which  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  instincts  that  are  coming  into 
prominence  at  the  time.  The  plays  of  young  animals 
are  therefore  greatly  influenced  by  the  order  in  which 
their  powers  and  instincts  develop,  and,  in  turn,  play 
directly  promotes  the  development  of  powers  that  will 
be  needed  in  adult  life. 

In  the  case  of  adults,  play  is  influenced  by  fatigue, 
and  is  a  means  of  developing  powers  not  used  in  daily 
work ;  hence  it  aids  all-round  development  and  furnishes 
a  means  of  recreation.  Play  and  necessity  are  the  chief 
means  of  learning.  In  children,  who  are  largely 
shielded  from  necessity,  play  in  its  various  forms  is 
the  more  important  factor  in  development. 

WORK,    PLAY,    AND    AMUSEMENT 

Objectively^  work  and  play  cannot  be  distinguished, 
though  the  results  of  playful  activity  are  usually  of 
little  importance  or  prominence,  while  work  usually 
has  results  that  are  more  or  less  valuable  and  perma- 
nent. Subjectively,  an  act  is  play  in  so  far  as  the 
activity  itself  is  enjoyed;  while  it  is  work  in  so  far  as 
the  end  gained  is  the  chief  thing  desired.  A  playful 
act  is  freely  chosen  for  its   own   sake,  while  work   is 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS— PLAY  1 49 

performed  because  it  is  a  means  to  some  end  which 
one  feels  bound  for  one  reason  or  another  to  secure. 

Physiologically,  work  requires  the  use  of  the  same 
parts  of  body  or  brain  in  the  same  way,  for  a  con- 
siderable time ;  while  play  exercises  many  parts  of  the 
body  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  usually  no  one  part  for 
very  long  without  change.  In  work,  the  least  avail- 
able energy  is  often  used,  and  the  activity  is  always 
directed ;  while  in  play,  parts  having  the  most  utiHz- 
able  energy  are  freely  active.  For  this  reason  work 
is  much  harder  and  more  wearisome  even  when  the 
amount  of  activity  is  less. 

Many  acts  involve  elements  of  both  work  and  play. 
Some  of  the  elements  may  be  disagreeable,  and  involve 
the  continued  use  of  parts  that  have  little  disposable 
energy ;  but  if  the  complex  act  as  a  whole  is  freely 
chosen  and  enjoyed,  aside  from  the  ends  secured,  the 
act  is  play. 

To  the  child  play  is  natural,  but  he  needs  to  learn  to 
work.  In  so  doing,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
he  cease  to  play.  On  the  contrary,  play  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  means  of  learning  to  work.  Obstacles 
are  met  in  most  plays,  and  the  child  must  do  many  things 
that  in  themselves  are  disagreeable,  in  order  that  he 
may  perform  the  desired  action.  The  act,  as  a  whole, 
is  play,  though  parts  of  it  are  work.  The  more  complex 
a  child's  play  becomes,  the  more  does  he  work  in  per- 
forming parts  of  it.  Materials  must  be  collected  before 
a  tea-party  can  be  held ;  bait  must  be  dug  and  a  long 
tramp  taken  before  fishing  is  possible ;  bases  must  be 
marked  out  before  the  ball  game  begins,  and  forts  must 
be  built  before  the  snowball  battle  opens.     The  boys 


I50  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

who  cleared  a  field  of  stones  in  dramatic  play,  by  repre- 
senting the  stones  as  water,  and  the  pile  where  they 
were  dumped  as  fire,  were  playing,  though  doing  with 
much  more  than  their  usual  working  vigor  what  would 
have  been  very  hard  and  tiresome  without  the  playful 
exercise  of  the  dramatic  instinct  to  lighten  it  and  make 
it  enjoyable. 

Nearly  every  adult  must  of  necessity  work,  yet  his 
work  may  be  to  him  a  most  enjoyable  play  if  it  is  well 
chosen  and  carried  on  in  the  proper  spirit.  If  it  is  so 
well  suited  to  his  powers,  and  he  takes  such  a  pride  and 
pleasure  in  it  that  he  would  continue  to  perform  it  if 
relieved  of  the  necessity  of  thus  making  a  living,  then  he 
is  really  playing  while  he  works.  This  is  perhaps  more 
often  the  case  with  artists,  authors,  and  inventors,  but 
it  may  be  equally  true  of  a  farmer,  business  man,  me- 
chanic, motorman,  or  of  a  teacher. 

Games  are  intermediate  between  free  play  and  work 
because  they  involve  more  or  less  direction  of  activity 
according  to  rule,  and  more  or  less  repetition  of  the 
same  acts ;  yet  they  are  always  chosen  and  played  for 
their  own  sake,  and  not  for  results  to  be  gained.  Pro- 
fessional players,  who  are  after  the  rewards  rather  than 
the  pleasures  of  the  game,  are  not  playing  but  working. 

Amusement  is  a  mild  and  passive  form  of  play,  a 
name  of  which  it  is  scarcely  worthy  because  it  involves 
so  little  activity  on  the  part  of  the  one  being  amused. 
Some  one  else  does  the  work  (though  perhaps  in  the 
form  of  play),  while  the  seeker  after  pleasure  enjoys  it 
if  he  can.  Here,  as  in  other  cases,  there  is  little  to  be 
gained  without  earning  it.  One  who  has  been  working 
hard  may  get  a  great  deal  of  enjoyment  and  rest  from 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — PLAY  151 

amusements ;  but  one  who  devotes  his  life  to  amuse- 
ments, ceases  to  enjoy  them.  To  amuse,  a  thing  must 
be  novel  or  appeal  to  phases  of  one's  nature  not  affected 
by  one's  occupation.  To  hard-working  people,  with  little 
surplus  energy,  amusements  are  a  valuable  means  of  rest 
and  sometimes  a  source  of  general  culture.  To  those 
whose  available  energy  is  used  in  their  daily  tasks, 
amusements  are  almost  indispensable,  and  play  scarcely 
necessary ;  while  for  all  others  active  play  is  essential, 
and  mere  amusement  of  secondary  importance.  Chil- 
dren, in  general,  need  play  rather  than  amusement. 

In  these  days  of  urban  life  and  specialization,  in  which 
not  one  per  cent  of  a  man's  powers  is  used  in  his  oc- 
cupation, play  is  of  far  more  importance  than  formerly. 
The  man  who  does  not  play  in  some  way  soon  degen- 
erates, because  so  few  of  his  powers  are  used. 

CHANGES  WITH  AGE  AS  REGARDS  FREEDOM  IN  PLAY 

The  first  plays  of  children  are  wholly  free,  i.e.  follow 
no  rules.  Attempts  to  direct  a  child's  activity  by  show- 
ing him  how  to  pound  or  build  are  often  resented  in  the 
first  year  or  two.  During  the  next  three  or  four  years, 
customs  which  serve  the  purpose  of  rules  of  the  play 
may  be  established  through  imitation ;  but  any  attempt 
to  dictate  when,  what,  or  how  a  child  shall  play  is  met 
with  opposition.  Suggestions  other  than  imitative  must 
also  be  given  with  care. 

Upon  entering  school  the  child  is  ready  for  games 
with  very  simple  rules,  but  quickly  loses  his  interest  in  a 
game  having  many  rules,  because  too  much  voluntary 
effort  is  required  to  play  it.  For  example,  drop  the 
handkerchief  is  enjoyed  very  much  when  there  is   no 


152  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

rule  except  to  pick  up  the  handkerchief  and  choose  the 
dropper,  then  to  leave  it  behind  some  one  else  ;  but  if  the 
more  complex  form  is  tried,  in  which  the  one  behind 
whom  it  is  dropped  must  discover  it  for  himself,  or  go 
inside  the  ring,  or  must  run  in  a  certain  direction  while 
the  dropper,  if  caught,  goes  inside  the  ring,  and  those 
inside  get  out  by  being  the  first  to  seize  the  handker- 
chief when  dropped  behind  some  one  in  the  circle,  very 
young  children  find  it  puzzUng  and  irksome,  though 
older  children,  familiar  with  the  game,  enjoy  it  more 
than  the  simpler  form. 

During  the  first  five  years  the  child's  activities  belong 
almost  wholly  to  the  kind  called  play,  while  in  the 
period  from  five  to  ten,  games  become  more  and  more 
prominent,  and  after  twelve,  plays,  as  ordinarily  under- 
stood, have  almost  wholly  given  place  to  games  and 
sports. 

Play  must  always  be  free  in  the  sense  of  being  en- 
gaged in  because  the  individual  wants  to  perform  the 
acts  for  their  own  sake  and  their  immediate  results, 
such  as  satisfying  the  instinctive  desire  to  win  in  a 
contest.  If  a  person  is  forced  to  play,  or  paid  for  play- 
ing, the  act  is  at  once  transformed  into  work.  Tennis 
played  only  for  the  benefits  of  the  exercise  is  not  play 
but  work. 

Play  becomes  less  free  with  age,  in  the  sense  that 
activity  is  directed  in  definite  lines  by  the  requirements 
of  the  rules  of  the  game.  This  conformity  to  law  4oes 
not  decrease  the  freedom  of  the  individuals  engaging 
in  the  more  complex  group  games,  but  rather  increases 
freedom  by  restricting  the  action  of  each  individual  as 
to  kind,  time,  and  place,  so  that  one  may  not  interfere 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  PLAY  153 

with  another.  Children  enjoy  playing  with  an  older 
person  who  leads  according  to  rules,  and  they  thus  learn 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  rules,  so  that  they  become 
indignant  with  the  companion  who  interferes  with  the 
game,  and  consequently  with  the  freedom  of  each  player, 
by  refusing  to  conform  to  rules  or  by  trying  to  cheat. 

The  great  lesson  of  law  as  a  means  of  freedom  is 
nowhere  so  well  taught  as  in  well-directed  and  orderly 
play.  In  no  other  place  can  a  child  so  fully  realize  for 
himself  the  value  of  law  as  on  the  playground.  A 
teacher  who  can  successfully  lead  children  to  play  hap- 
pily in  accordance  with  whatever  rules  are  necessary,  is 
not  only  forming  a  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  orderly 
and  fair  play,  but  she  is  also  preparing  the  children  for 
good  citizenship  more  effectually  than  she  can  possibly 
do  in  the  schoolroom,  where  the  children  have  not  so 
keen  a  personal  interest  in  what  is  being  done. 

CHANGES  WITH  AGE  AS  REGARDS  POWERS  USED  IN  PLAY 

Children  begin  playing  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
first  year,  and  long  before  the  close  of  that  year  have 
engaged  in  a  great  variety  of  plays.  Almost  every  sen- 
sation and  movement  that  comes  under  their  control  is 
repeated  again  and  again  as  play.  Objects  are  scratched, 
rubbed,  pounded,  rolled,  and  tossed  about  almost  con- 
tinually. If  in  doing  so  the  eye  and  ear  are  variously 
stimulated,  the  pleasure  is  all  the  greater.  Not  only 
objects,  but  parts  of  the  child's  own  body,  are  used  as 
instruments  of  play.  This  is  perhaps  most  marked  in 
the  case  of  the  mouth  and  vocal  organs,  which  during 
the  first  year  or  two  are  endless  sources  of  amusement. 
The    powers  most  exercised  in  this  early  play  are  evi- 


154  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

dently  those  of  the  sense  organs  and  the  muscles. 
There  is  no  attempt  to  use  them  accurately  or  in  any 
definite  way,  but  merely  to  use  them  freely  over  and 
over,  yet  as  it  happens  with  infinite  variations.  In 
shaking  brightly  colored  balls  or  a  rattle  it  is  hard  to  tell 
which  is  the  greater  source  of  pleasure,  —  the  varied 
and  repeated  muscular  sensations,  or  the  changing  and 
recurrent  visual  and  auditory  sensations  ;  but  either  alone 
is  sufficient  to  call  forth  the  play  instinct,  for  the  sight 
of  waving  ribbons  or  dancing  sunbeams  is  a  visual  play, 
as  are  sound  jingles  auditory  play,  and  movements  of 
limbs  muscular  play. 

For  two  or  three  years  the  child's  play  is  almost 
wholly  physical  and  perceptional.  Great  progress  is 
made,  however,  during  this  time,  for  the  movements  be- 
come much  more  complex,  so  that  all  parts  of  the  body 
are  used  at  once,  and  they  are  not  merely  used  but 
exercised  in  doing  specific  things  involving  some  ac- 
curacy, as  in  preserving  the  balance  when  jumping  or 
throv/ing  something,  or  in  hitting  objects  or  piling  them 
up  so  they  will  stay. 

On  the  mental  side,  also,  there  is  great  change,  for  it 
is  not  mere  sensation  that  is  exercised,  but  perception  of 
relation  and  likeness,  difference  and  space,  as  the  child 
pounds  objects  and  puts  one  inside  of  or  on  top  of 
another  and  arranges  (or  scatters)  them  to  his  satisfac- 
tion. 

In  the  third  year  the  representative  powers  are  de- 
veloped sufficiently  to  be  exercised  in  play.  The  child 
begins  to  find  amusement  in  reproducing  or  represent- 
ing acts  and  events  that  have  been  observed  on  previous 
occasions.     He  delights  in  reproducing  phrases,  rhymes, 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — PLAY  1 55 

and  actions,  and  in  representing  events,  as  a  visit  to  a 
neighbor  or  a  ride.  Soon  nearly  all  of  his  play  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  field  of  imagination,  where  his  freedom  is 
complete  ;  and  no  object  is  so  remote,  rare,  or  costly  that 
he  cannot  have  it  in  the  form  of  a  representation,  and 
no  process  so  difficult  that  it  is  not  readily  performed  (in 
his  mind)  by  the  manipulation  of  a  few  simple  objects. 
Feasts  and  fetes  are  provided  on  short  notice,  and  with- 
out the  hitches  that  so  often  trouble  adult  dispensers  of 
hospitality. 

Imagination,  as  the  important  factor  in  the  child's 
plays,  usually  reaches  its  climax  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
years,  but  continues  to  be  an  important  though  decreas- 
ing element  in  his  plays  and  games  till  puberty.  Fairy 
stories  are  interesting  largely  because  they  give  playful 
exercise  to  the  imagination. 

As  the  child  grows  older,  mere  exercise  of  physical 
powers  becomes  a  less  important  element,  though 
any  new  movement,  as  standing  on  the  head,  turning 
somersaults,  skinning  the  cat,  walking  on  the  hands, 
etc.,  always  appeals  to  the  ever-developing  instinct 
of  play.  After  five  or  six  years,  familiar  movements 
are  not  made  in  play  merely  to  use  the  power,  but 
to  use  it  in  some  definite  way,  involving  quickness, 
strength,  endurance,  or  accuracy.  From  six  or  seven 
years  to  puberty,  testing  exercises  of  physical  powers 
are  important  elements  in  the  plays  and  games  of  chil- 
dren, especially  of  boys.  The  latter  part  of  this  period 
there  is  not  only  desire  to  do  what  companions  can  or 
what  they  cannot  do,  but  to  reach  certain  standards,  to 
*'  make  records." 

On  the  mental  side  the  changes  from  six  to  twelve  are 


156  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

of  a  corresponding  nature.  Perceptive  and  representa- 
tive powers  are  not  merely  used,  but  tested.  Thought 
power  has  been  used  to  some  extent  before  this  time  in 
connection  with  the  imagination,  in  judging  and  reason- 
ing as  to  the  proper  and  logical  mode  of  representing 
persons  and  events  {e.g.  the  larger  stick  must  be  papa 
and  he  must  sit  at  the  head  of  the  table  or  must  drive 
the  horse,  or  the  yellow  block  must  be  the  car  and  the 
black  one  the  engine  and  the  latter  must  be  in  front). 
Thought  power  as  a  distinct  element  in  the  pleasure  of 
play  is  not,  however,  very  prominent  till  about  seven  or 
'eight,  when  guess  games  and  riddles  begin  to  have  a 
great  fascination.  A  little  later,  games  especially  exer- 
cising thought  power,  such  as  morris,  checkers,  cards, 
authors,  come  into  favor,  and  later  the  most  intellectual 
of  all  games,  chess. 

In  general,  we  may  say  that  every  power,  physical  and 
mental,  as  it  appears,  is  playfully  exercised,  and  thus  its 
development  is  hastened,  and  after  each  power  is  de- 
veloped to  some  extent,  it  is  tested  and  perfected  in 
contests  and  games. 

CHANGES    WITH    AGE    AS    REGARDS    INSTINCTS     INVOLVED 

IN    PLAY 

The  early  stages  of  almost  all  instincts  are  manifested 
in  play,  and  after  they  are  used  for  the  serious  purposes 
of  life  they  are  still  important  factors  in  more  or  less 
playful  activities  outside  of  one's  vocation. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  instinct  to  be  shown  in  play  is 
that  form  of  curiosity  which  dehghts  in  changes.  For 
this  reason,  peek-a-boo  and  other  sudden  transforma- 
tions are  enjoyed,  when  repeated  over  and  over  again. 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  —  PLAY  1 57 

A  certain  interval  of  preparation  before  making  a  final 
movement  which  effects  the  change  seems  to  add  to  the 
pleasure.  This  indicates  that  the  rhythmic  tendency  is, 
from  the  first,  an  important  element  in  children's  play. 
The  early  enjoyment  of  recurrent  sensations,  movements, 
and  jingles  is  further  evidence  of  the  early  prominence 
of  this  instinct. 

The  movements  of  emotional  expression  in  attitude 
and  voice  are  often  made  playfully  in  the  third  year, 
though  the  expressive  instinct  has  a  serious  use  for 
them  from  the  first. 

The  feeling  of  personal  power  which  can  effect 
changes  is  an  important  element  in  play,  as  soon  as 
the  child  gains  control  of  his  hands. 

As  soon  as  a  child  attains  any  form  of  locomotion, 
whether  rolKng,  creeping,  or  walking,  he  delights  in 
being  chased.  This,  one  of  the  most  universally  useful 
of  all  instincts,  appears  in  play  at  all  ages  and  is  the  chief 
element  in  nearly  all  the  more  popular  games,  at  least 
before  puberty. 

Imitative  acts,  when  repeated  over  and  over  without 
purpose,  may  be  considered  as  playful ;  hence  imitative 
and  dramatic  plays  are  very  popular  from  three  to  seven, 
and  dramatic  play  continues  in  favor  much  later. 

It  is  hard  to  say  just  when  the  fighting  and  competi- 
tive instinct  is  first  manifested,  either  seriously  or  play- 
fully ;  but  competition  is  the  most  prominent  element  in 
the  play  of  children  from  seven  to  twelve.  It  continues 
to  be  a  prominent  feature  in  games  all  through  life,  but 
is  often  subordinated  to  the  group  instinct  which  devel- 
ops at  puberty.  Such  games  as  baseball  and  football, 
which  involve  cooperation  and  subordination  of  Individ- 


158  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ual  prowess  and  honor  for  the  sake  of  the  greater 
prowess  and  honor  of  the  group  (which  represents  the 
youth's  larger  self),  are  then  most  favored.  This  co- 
operative or  tribal  tendency  is  also  manifested  in  con- 
nection with  predatory  instincts  at  the  beginning  of 
puberty,  in  the  formation  of  gangs  for  such  purposes  as 
hunting,  fishing,  robbing,  teasing  policemen,  or  fight- 
ing boys  of  another  neighborhood.  Other  instincts 
taking  the  form  of  play  or  involved  in  play  are  the 
constructive,  collecting,  and  aesthetic  instincts,  all  of 
which  begin  early  and  continue  all  through  life,  but  so 
far  as  is  known,  without  any  clearly  marked  period  of 
prominence  except  that  they  change  their  form  with  age. 

PLAY  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION 

Necessity  is  not  only  the  "  mother  of  invention,"  but 
also  of  a  great  deal  of  knowledge  of  all  kinds.  Animals, 
nations,  and  individuals  must  learn  something  of  their 
environment,  such  as  how  best  to  secure  food,  escape 
danger,  and  preserve  their  species.  This  is  true  of 
adults,  but  not  in  so  great  a  degree  of  young  animals 
and  children,  for  they  are,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
screened  from  the  necessities  of  life  by  parental  care 
and  protection.  Without  this  protection,  necessity 
would  be  to  the  young,  in  their  weakness  and  ignorance, 
an  executioner  rather  than  a  teacher. 

How  shall  these  helpless  and  ignorant  young  ones 
become  strong  and  wise  '^.  Partly  through  physical 
development  as  determined  by  inner  laws  governing 
the  growth  of  the  species,  and  partly  through  occasional 
touches  of  necessity  in  spite  of  the  screen  of  parental 
care,  but  chiefly  through  Nature's  jolly  old  nurse,  Play, 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — PLAY  1 59 

who  charms  children  into  using  every  power  as  it  deveL 
ops,  and  into  finding  out  everything  possible  about  their 
environment  from  the  heavens  above  to  the  earth 
beneath. 

Practically  all  education  among  animals  and  savages 
is  carried  on  by  **  Mother  Necessity  "  and  ''  Nurse  Play," 
but  among  civilized  people  there  is  a  third  teacher  which 
we  may  designate  as  **  Stepmother  Authority."  All  civ- 
ilized people  select  certain  truths  and  activities  that  they 
regard  as  valuable,  and  induce  the  children,  by  various 
more  or  less  artificial  means,  to  learn  and  thus  prepare 
for  the  life  they  are  to  live  as  adults.  Such  education, 
if  consistent  and  wise,  may  be  very  valuable,  but  it  is 
artificial.  It  often  does  not  make  use  of  natural  im- 
pulses, and  is  therefore  a  source  of  a  large  amount  of 
waste  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  pupils.  If  the  natural 
educators,  necessity  and  play,  were  properly  utilized,  it 
would  be  Hke  travelling  with  the  wind  and  tide,  instead 
of  by  wearisome  rowing  in  dead  calms  or  against  ad- 
verse winds. 

Since  the  conditions  of  life  are  now  quite  different 
from  what  they  were  in  a  savage  state,  we  need  a  special 
preparation  for  life  as  it  has  to  be  lived  now.  Activities 
which  would  develop  all  the  powers  possessed  by  our 
ancestors  in  a  proper  degree  would  not  give  the  best 
preparation  for  the  life  of  to-day.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, that  truths  and  activities  suited  to  modern  life  shall 
be  selected,  to  the  end  that  children  may  be  properly 
educated.  If  the  child  comes  in  contact  with  this  arti- 
ficial environment,  necessity  and  playful  imitation  will 
induce  him  to  choose  many,  perhaps  most  of  the  truths 
and  activities  that  will  be  of  greatest  value  to  him  in 


l60  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

life.  Yet  it  is  still  necessary  for  authority  to  do  some- 
thing in  the  way  of  selecting  and  arranging  educative 
truths  and  activities  for  the  young. 

The  teacher,  in  presenting  this  educative  material  to 
the  children,  may  act  as  a  servant  of  authority  and  sim- 
ply require,  by  rewards  and  punishments,  that  children 
shall  take  it,  or  she  may  try  to  present  it  in  such  a  way 
that  the  greater  portion  of  the  time  the  child  recognizes  no 
other  teachers  than  stern  "  Mother  Necessity  "  and  joy- 
ous "  Play."  If  she  succeeds  in  the  latter  method,  play 
is  the  chief  factor  in  education  during  the  early  years ; 
but  gradually  more  and  more  place  is  given  to  Necessity, 
until  she  is  the  honored  director  of  activity  in  manhood, 
or  perchance  both  give  place  to  the  twin  sisters.  Doing 
and  Achievement,  who  smile  alike  on  work  that  is  as 
joyous  as  play,  and  play  that  is  as  valuable  as  work. 

In  school,  where  what  is  to  be  done  and  learned  is 
determined  by  the  course  of  study,  there  are  yet  so 
many  ways  of  doing  and  learning  that  it  is  often  possi- 
ble for  the  teacher  to  arrange  exercises  so  that  the  domi- 
nant powers  and  instincts  of  the  children  at  each  age 
shall  be  called  into  activity  in  a  playful  way.  Curiosity 
supplies  all  the  interest  necessary  in  learning  new  things ; 
but  something  else  is  required  in  drilling  on  what  has 
been  learned,  to  produce  accuracy,  speed,  permanency, 
and  facility  in  using.  It  is  in  this  part  of  school  work 
that  the  play  impulse  may  be  utilized  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. With  a  little  ingenuity  every  such  exercise  may 
be  so  conducted  that  it  will  really  be  play.  It  will  also 
be  work,  in  that  the  child  will  be  induced  to  perform 
again  and  again  the  same  act ;  but  without  weariness, 
because   the   act   is   variously   associated,    and   always 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — PLAY  l6l 

agreeably,  in  new  combinations  with  powers  and  in- 
stincts that  are  being  playfully  exercised.  All  school 
exercises  in  which  repetition  to  secure  skill  and  accuracy 
is  necessary,  including  word  drill,  numbers  requiring 
rapidity  in  fundamental  operations,  factoring,  etc.,  and 
fixing  facts  of  geography,  history,  and  grammar,  may  be 
conducted  as  games  rather  than  as  formal  drills. 

In  conducting  such  exercises  the  teacher  may  or  may 
not  call  them  games,  and  she  must  not  make  them  too 
easy.  Most  games  owe  their  charm  to  their  difficulty, 
and  nothing  is  more  tiresome  and  destructive  of  real 
interest  and  ambition  in  children  than  doing  easy  things 
only.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing  so  stimu- 
lating and  inspiring  to  children  as  to  be  allowed  to  do 
things  that  are  supposed  to  be  difficult.  The  more 
difficult  an  exercise  can  be  made  to  appear  to  children 
the  better,  providing  they  are  not  deterred  from  trying, 
and  that  it  is  not  really  so  difficult  that  they  cannot 
succeed. 

The  other  essential  to  the  success  of  such  exercises  is 
that  there  shall  be  frequent  changes  to  give  variety. 
Except  for  very  young  children,  these  changes  may 
consist  largely  of  slight  modifications  in  the  exercise 
that  make  it  more  difficult  in  one  way,  then  in  another, 
as  they  acquire  facility  in  one  phase  of  activity  after 
another.  By  such  changes  interest  is  maintained  through 
variety  and  by  the  constant  re-adaptation  of  the  exercise 
to  the  growing  powers  of  the  child.  Adaptations  to 
new  powers  and  instincts  are  also  desirable  as  the  child 
develops. 

In  planning  educational  games  for  younger  children, 
the  muscular,  perceptive,  and  imaginative  powers  must 


1 62  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

be  called  into  action  and  tested.  For  children  a  little 
older,  thought  power  may  be  exercised  and  imagination 
and  memory  power  tested.  As  children  grow  older, 
the  tests  of  power  may  be  made  more  difficult  and 
complex,  resulting  finally  in  tests  of  various  powers 
combined,  including  thought  power.  The  rhythmic, 
imitative,  and  dramatic  instincts  may  be  chiefly  appealed 
to  in  the  younger  children,  then  from  seven  to  twelve 
the  competitive  instincts,  and  from  tqn  years  on,  the 
cooperative,  group,  or  class  spirit.  The  chief  points  to 
be  recognized  are  that  the  drill  be  neither  too  difficult 
nor  too  easy,  that  there  be  some  element  in  it  that 
appeals  to  the  children,  and  that  variety  be  introduced 
in  order  that  there  may  be  no  fatigue  or  loss  of  interest. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Mention  some  plays  of  animals  and  children  that  you  think 
develop  their  instincts  and  prepare  them  for  adult  life. 

2.  Describe  the  recreations  of  some  adults  you  know,  and  explain 
on  the  theory  of  play.  Why  do  brain  workers  engage  in  manual 
labor  and  city  people  go  to  the  country  for  recreation  ? 

3.  Why  is  a  mason  piling  up  brick,  working,  and  a  child  piling  up 
blocks,  playing  ? 

4.  Is  one  who  engages  in  billiards  or  bowling  to  secure  a  prize 
of  value,  working  or  playing  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Is  drawing  or  singing  work  or  play  for  you  .''  Why  ?  Is  any 
of  your  work  really  play  to  you  ? 

6.  Mention  games  and  sports  that  are  especially  valuable  in 
preparing  for  work,  giving  reasons. 

7.  Yoder,  in  his  study  of  the  boyhood  of  great  men,  found  that 
most  of  them  were  noted  players  when  boys.  How  do  you  interpret 
this  ? 

8.  Mention  several  amusements  as  distinguished  from  play,  and 
indicate  their  value,  if  any. 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — PLAY  163 

9.   Does  the  statement,  "  A  teacher  should  interest  her  pupils," 
mean  she  should  amuse  them,  or  what  does  it  mean  ? 

10.  What  plays  and  games  did  you  most  enjoy  at  different  ages  ? 
What  games  are  most  popular  among  children  you  have  observed 
at  different  ages  ?  Determine  as  well  as  you  can  what  character- 
istics of  various  games  make  them  popular,  taking  into  account  the 
freedom  of  the  game,  the  powers  used,  and  the  instincts  involved. 

1 1 .  Mention  things  some  animals  you  know  learned  by  necessity. 
Mention  ihings  you  and  other  individuals  learned  because  it  was 
necessary.  Mention  differences  in  knowledge  possessed  by  the 
people  of  different  regions,  produced  by  conditions  under  which 
their  life  must  be  maintained. 

12.  Which  has  been  the  larger  factor,  necessity  or  the  play  impulse 
in  developing  practical  knowledge  ?    The  sciences  ?    The  arts  ? 

13.  What  connection  is  there  between  the -statements  that  we 
should  utilize  the  play  impulse  of  children  and  that  we  should 
appeal  to  their  interests  ? 

14.  Mention  indoor  gymnastic  plays  that  are  good  for  recreation 
and  physical  development.  When  the  teacher  directs  each  move- 
ment, are  gymnastics  a  rest  or  another  form  of  work  ? 

15.  Describe  games  that  may  be  used  in  numbers,  arithmetic, 
geography,  and  history  in  certain  grades,  and  indicate  changes  that 
may  be  made  as  the  children  progress. 


Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  theory  and  value  of  play,  read  Spencer,  Psychology^ 
Vol.  I,  sec.  50,  and  Vol.  II,  chap,  ix ;  Groos,  Play  of  Animals, 
especially  pp.  1-81,  and  the  preface  by  Baldwin  ;  Stanley,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  86-92  ;  Allen,  Univ.  of  Colo.  Studies,  Vol.  I, 
PP-  59-72  ;  Carr,  Univ.  of  Colo.  Studies,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  pp.  1-47  : 
Blow.  Symbolic  Education,  chap,  v;  Chamberlain,  The  Child. 
chap.  ii.  and  on  kinds  of  play,  Groos,  Play  of  Man. 

On  development  of  the  play  instinct,  besides  records  of  the  play  of 
infants  in  Preyer,  Moore,  Shinn,  Tracy,  and  of  young  animals 
in  Mills  and  Groos,  see  Monroe,  /V.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  1084-1090 ; 
Crosswell,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  314-371 ;  Guiick,  Ped.  Sem., 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  135-150  ;  Burk,  AT.  W.  Mo.,Vo\.  IX,  pp.  349-355  ; 


1 64  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Hall  and  Allen,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  129-175  ;  Hall,  Scrtb- 
7ter^s  Mag.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  689-696;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  171-174- 

On  the  use  of  play  in  education,  Johnson,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
97-133,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  513-522  ;  Felker,  N.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  624- 
630  ;  Powe  and  others  in  N.  E.  A.,  I90i,pp.  502-532  ;  Wiggin, 
Childreii's  Rights,  pp.  25-67  ;  Harrison,  Child  Nature,  chap.  iii. 

For  descriptions  of  games  to  be  played,  see  Lucas,  What  Shall  We 
Do  Now  f  Newell,  Games  and  Songs  of  American  Children ; 
Chesley,  hidoor  and  Outdoor  Gymnastic  Games. 


tl 


CHAPTER   X 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — 
CURIOSITY 

FUNCTION    OF    CURIOSITY 

From  the  moment  that  the  sunlight  dancing  on  the 
wall,  or  the  little  hands  waving  before  the  eyes  hold  the 
infant's  gaze,  till  the  time  when  the  latest  discoveries  in 
science  are  eagerly  examined  by  the  savant,  curiosity  in 
some  form  is  daily  and  hourly  a  factor  in  human  action 
and  thought. 

Curiosity  is  even  more  omnivorous  than  imitation.  It 
is  at  first  almost  entirely  unselective,  except  as  stronger 
stimuli  force  themselves  upon  the  attention.  It  may  be 
described  as  an  appetite  for  new  experiences.  In  in- 
fancy everything  is  new,  hence  everything  is  interesting. 
Curiosity  is  early  manifested  in  a  tendency  to  prolong  a 
sensation,  as  by  gazing  at  a  new  object ;  or  to  reproduce 
it,  as  when  a  sound  is  made  again  ;  or  to  act  so  as  to  get 
one  or  more  additional  sensations,  as  when  an  object 
seen  is  felt  of ;  or  to  find  the  relation  of  one  sensation 
to  others,  as  when  a  child  discovers  that  touching  an 
object  being  struck,  deadens  the  sound.  Later,  similar 
things  are  true  of  ideas. 

By  means  of  curiosity  a  child  is  brought  into  intimate 
relation  with  various  phases  of  his  environment,  instead 
of  simply  those  that  minister  to  his  existence.     Every- 

i66 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — CURIOSITY  167 

thing  around  him  is  made  a  part  of  himself.  The  trees, 
the  hills,  the  birds,  the  people  of  his  home  surroundings, 
are  compared  and  related  to  what  he  finds  in  new  sur- 
roundings. 

The  greater  the  knowledge  of  environment  gained 
through  curiosity,  the  greater  the  possibiUty  of  adapta- 
tion to  environment,  as  occasions  arise  involving  appli- 
cations of  knowledge  that  have  hitherto  been  useless. 
Thus  a  child  who  has  learned  a  word  through  mere 
curiosity  may  be  able  to  use  it  as  a  means  of  getting 
what  he  wants,  or  one  who  has  learned  through  mere 
curiosity  that  wood  floats,  wasps  sting,  plants  grow,  fire 
burns,  etc.,  may  on  occasion  use  the  knowledge  in  a 
practical  way.  Other  instincts  tend  to  produce  the 
proper  response  to  present  stimuli,  while  curiosity  is 
continually  preparing  for  the  right  response  to  condi- 
tions that  may  be  met  in  the  future.  It  lays  up  great  >, 
stores  of  knowledge  that  serve  as  a  basis  for  useful 
reactions.  If  man  never  learned  anything  before  he 
had  occasion  to  use  it,  he  would  suffer  in  countless  ways 
from  improper  and  delayed  action.  Necessity  is  a 
great  teacher,  but  curiosity  is  a  greater  teacher  in  early 
life,  because  even  in  early  infancy  it  gives  lessons  that 
prepare  for  life.  It  does  not  inflict  immediate  and  severe 
punishment  as  does  necessity,  but  it  gives  present  joy 
and  prepares  for  great  rewards  in  the  future. 

The  race  as  well  as  the  individual  has  learned  by 
means  of  curiosity.  In  its  highest  form  curiosity  has 
led  to  many  scientific  discoveries  that  were  of  no  imme- 
diate practical  value.  Sooner  or  later,  however,  these 
abstract  scientific  truths  nearly  always  find  valuable 
practical  applications. 


1 68  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 


CURIOSITY,    ATTENTION,    AND    INTEREST 

Curiosity,  as  an  instinct  or  impulse,  produces  in  con- 
sciousness a  concentration  of  activity  called  attention,  and 
a  feeling  accompanying  the  act,  called  interest.  Study- 
ing attention  and  interest  is  therefore  the  chief  means 
of  studying  curiosity,  since  they  are  largely  the  result  of 
curiosity,  though  other  instincts  and  much  experience 
may  also  be  involved.  The  simple  mental  state  of 
attention  to  the  act  of  eating,  or  of  drawing  back  from 
a  dangerous  object,  is  the  result  of  the  feeding  and  the 
fear  instincts  ;  but  attention  to  the  taste^  feeling,  or 
appeara7ice  of  food,  or  the  characteristics  of  the  object 
of  fear,  is  due  mainly  to  curiosity.  Often  there  is  a  pro- 
longed period  of  attention  and  interest,  before  action  in 
the  way  of  eating  the  food,  or  backing  away  from  the 
fearful  object,  or  of  approaching  for  closer  investigation 
results.  Curiosity  may,  therefore,  either  support  or 
oppose  the  attention  and  interest  excited  by  other  in- 
stincts. For  most  instincts,  however,  especially  for  play 
and  imitation,  it  is  a  forerunner  and  supporter  in  the 
sense  of  leading  to  a  closer  examination  of  objects, 
though  this  often  results  in  checking  the  usual  instinc- 
tive mode  of  reaction  to  those  objects. 

The  essential  characteristic  of  a  stimulus  that  arouses 
the  instinct  of  curiosity  is  that  of  novelty.  Since,  how- 
ever, a  stimulus  must  have  a  certain  degree  of  intensity 
to  be  effective,  and  as  everything  is  at  first  new,  it  is 
the  louder  sounds,  the  brighter  colors,  and  stronger  con- 
trasts, as,  for  instance,  the  dark  hair  and  white  forehead 
of  the  mother,  that  secure  the  infant's  attention  when  he 
begins  to  take    notice  in  the  latter    part  of    the   first 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — CURIOSITY  169 

quarter  year.  The  sensations  that  are  repeated,  how- 
ever, soon  cease  to  be  noticed,  through  loss  of  novelty. 

Close  observation  shows  that  certain  objects,  sounds, 
or  colors  are  attended  to  longer  and  a  greater  number  of 
times  than  others  of  equal  or  even  greater  intensity, 
objectively  speaking.  This  suggests  the  well-known 
fact  that  stimuh  are  effective  according  to  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  organism  to  them,  rather  than  according 
merely  to  their  objective  strength.  A  slight  touch  on 
a  boil  or  a  corn  is  a  stronger  stimulus  than  a  hard  blow 
on  some  other  part ;  in  a  similar  way  individuals  differ 
greatly  in  sensitiveness  to  the  same  sounds,  colors,  and 
objects.  As  a  child's  instincts  develop,  he  becomes  more 
sensitive  to  certain  stimuh,  consequently  his  curiosity  is 
more  readily  excited  in  some  directions  than  in  others. 
When  a  child's  competitive  instincts  are  strong,  he  hkes 
to  hear  of  contests ;  and  when  he  has  been  flying  kites, 
he  likes  to  hear  how  children  in  other  countries  and 
scientific  men  fly  them.  Children's  interest  or  curiosity, 
therefore,  changes  with  the  development  of  new  instincts 
and  with  new  experiences. 

The  tendency  to  imitation  and  play  heightens  the 
interest  for  a  time  by  helping  to  disclose  new  charac- 
teristics of  the  object,  then  decreases  it  by  effectually 
removing  the  essential  element  —  newness.  Though 
curiosity  is  thus  continually  destroyed  by  the  results  of 
its  own  action  assisted  by  play,  the  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired becomes  the  basis  for  a  fresh  growth  of  curiosity 
and  play  a  little  later.  For  example,  colored  cubes  lose 
their  interest  when  played  with  a  great  deal,  only  to 
regain  it  again  and  again  as  increased  experience  with 
other  things  prepares  for  new  uses  and  the   consequent 


I70  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

observation  of  new  characteristics.  The  child,  after 
losing  his  interest  in  looking  at  and  touching  them, 
enjoys  placing  them  in  rows,  or  on  top  of  each  other,  in 
building  houses  of  them,  counting  their  sides  and  curves, 
comparing  them  with  other  solids,  and  noting  their 
weight  and  material  as  compared  with  other  cubes,  and 
finally  in  studying  geometrical  relations  of  all  kinds. 
Thus  familiarity  with  the  shape  and  composition  of  the 
first  cubes  prepares  the  way  for  noticing  the  character- 
istics of  blocks  differently  shaped  and  composed,  and 
also  lays  a  foundation  in  experience  for  a  study  of 
mathematical  relations. 

Since  nothing  is  noticed  as  new  except  as  it  differs 
from  the  familiar,  every  familiarity  prepares  for  a  fresh 
novelty.  The  materials  produced  by  the  self-destruc- 
tive acts  of  curiosity  therefore  furnish  a  rich  soil  for 
the  growth  of  a  more  vigorous  interest.  This  growth 
of  interest  through  increase  in  knowledge  may  be  illus- 
trated mathematically.  If  you  know  but  two  character- 
istics of  an  object,  you  can  compare  these  with  two  of 
another  object;  but  if  you  know  four,  you  can  compare 
with  four  and  thus  make  sixteen  comparisons ;  while  if 
you  know  eight,  you  can  make  sixty-four  comparisons,  or 
thirty-two  times  as  many  as  when  you  knew  only  two. 
The  increase  is  therefore  in  a  geometrical  ratio.  To  him 
who  gains  knowledge  more  interest  and  knowledge  is 
continually  given. 

Curiosity  has  therefore  two  means  of  growth:  (i) 
through  new  stimuli  gained  by  changing  or  enlarging 
one's  environment,  and  (2)  through  increasing  knowledge 
of  familiar  objects  by  the  discovery  of  new  relations. 
From  the  psychological  point  of  view  the  problem  of  in- 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — CURIOSITY  I^I 

terest  is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  effects  of  experience. 
Psychology  shows  how  interest  may  be  promoted  by  a 
changing  or  enlarging  environment,  and  by  increasing 
the  knowledge  of  things  already  in  the  environment. 
From  the  child-study  point  of  view,  however,  the  prob- 
lem is  one  of  development.  It  is  not  to  find  how  any 
particular  kind  of  desirable  interest  may  be  increased 
by  external  influences,  but  to  discover  at  what  stages 
of  organic  and  instinctive  development  the  child  is  espe- 
cially sensitive  to  certain  phases  of  his  surroundings,  or, 
in  other  words,  to  determine  what  interests,  if  any,  are 
naturally  strongest  at  each  stage  of  development.  This 
is  a  very  difficult  matter  because,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  previous  experience  is  such  a  large  factor  in 
interest  that  it  is  hard  to  tell  what  is  interesting  because 
of  inner  conditions  of  development,  and  what  is  interest- 
ing because  of  experience  and  training. 

CHANGES    IN    CURIOSITY    WITH    AGE 

Curiosity  has  so  many  forms,  and  the  impulse  toward 
the  new  so  frequently  alternates  in  children  with  the 
love  of  the  famiUar,  as  shown  in  love  for  old  stories, 
games,  etc.,  that  the  general  course  of  development  is 
hard  to  trace.  There  are  times  when  nothing  but  some- 
thing new  will  satisfy  the  child,  then  again,  he  wants 
nothing  but  the  old,  the  famihar.  Such  changes,  though 
irregular,  are  frequent  enough  to  suggest  that  curiosity 
impels  to  the  acquiring  of  a  system  of  knowledge  of 
certain  phases  of  the  environment,  then  to  a  reaching 
out  after  a  new  environment.  Play  and  imitation  make 
the  more  obvious  characteristics  of  this  new  territory 
famihar ;  curiosity  then  leads  to  a  fresh  excursion  into 


172  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

the  new,  but  there  is  often  a  return  to  the  old,  which  is 
then  reviewed  in  the  Hght  of  the  new  experience. 

Early  in  life,  and  whenever  a  new  object  is  introduced, 
the  kind  of  curiosity  or  interest  excited  by  the  mere  fact 
of  newness  may  be  called  empirical.  Later,  the  same 
object  excites  curiosity,  not  because  of  the  new  sensations 
or  ideas  it  gives,  but  because  of  the  desire  to  trace  the 
relation  of  some  of  its  characteristics  to  those  of  other 
objects.  The  curiosity  or  interest  thus  excited  may  be 
called  speculative  or  relational. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  curiosity  of  children 
is  largely  empirical,  partially  because  there  are  more 
new  things  for  them  to  experience,  while  adults  who 
have  more  knowledge  to  relate  to  whatever  they  per- 
ceive are  more  concerned  with  speculative  interests. 

Before  a  child  begins  to  talk,  his  interest  is  mainly  in 
getting  new  sensations  and  noting  their  relations;  but 
when  the  instinct  of  expression  awakens,  names  for 
experiences  are  sought  in  the  constant  question,  "  What 
is  that.''"  which  is  satisfactorily  answered  by  a  name. 
After  various  objects  and  acts  and  the  names  for  them 
become  familiar,  the  interest  changes  to  their  relations, 
and  the  constant  questions  are:  *'  What  is  that  for.?  "  (use), 
and  "  How  do  you  do  that.-*"  or  "  What  do  you  do  that 
for  .'* "  (how  and  why).  Again,  for  a  time,  interest  goes 
from  objects  and  acts  to  their  origin,  and  the  constant 
question  is,  *'  Where  did  that  come  from .?  "  Later, 
"Why.?"  questions  predominate,  but  often  with  a  little 
different  meaning.  They  refer  less  to  subjective  reasons 
for  doing  a  thing  and  more  to  common  laws  or  general 
truths,  e.g.  '*  It  is  dark  because  the  sun  has  gone  down." 
Interest  now  is  often  concerned  with  the  applications  of 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — CURIOSITY 


173 


truths  that  have  previously  been  learned.  *'  Is  the  sun 
down  ?  "  —  "  No."  —  *'  What  makes  it  dark  then.?  "  This 
stage  is  reached  in  the  third  or  fourth  year.  At  about 
this  time  every  question  regarding  a  general  truth  is 
succeeded  by  another  "Why.?"  till  the  puzzled  adult 
reaches  what  the  persistent  little  questioner  accepts  as 
an  ultimate  reason,  or  the  circle  is  completed  and  the 
first  answer  is  given,  or  in  exasperation  the  child  is  told 
to  "keep  still." 

From  the  earHest  days  of  taking  notice,  movements 
and  actions  are  the  strongest  stimuli  to  curiosity.  This 
remains  true  all  through  Ufe,  but  investigation  shows 
that  it  is  less  so  in  the  later  than  in  the  earlier  years  of 
school  hfe,  and  most  so  before  entering  school.  Chil- 
dren of  two  years  use  nearly  twice  as  large  a  proportion 
of  action  words  as  adults.  Professor  Shaw  found  that 
in  school  the  younger  children,  when  asked  to  tell  what 
they  thought  when  certain  words  were  named,  mentioned 
actions  more  frequently  than  the  older  ones;  Barnes, 
that  they  were  more  interested  in  the  use  of  things; 
and  I  have  found  that  if  asked  to  give  a  Hst  of  words 
younger  children  give  more  action  words  than  older 
children  and  adults.  Vostrovsky  found  that  actions  were 
prominent  in  children's  own  stories,  and  Kohler,  that 
they  remembered  the  action  of  stories  told  them  better 
than  descriptive  details. 

As  to  other  interests,  Vostrovsky  found  that  in  chil- 
dren's stories  names,  appearance,  time,  place,  and  pos- 
session are  prominent;  while  Barnes  found  that  in 
history  they  questioned  most  about  cause  and  effect, 
who,  why,  personal  detail,  general  detail,  and  least 
about  time  and  truth. 


174  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

As  to  objects  of  interest,  various  studies  of  children's 
reading  and  of  their  spontaneous  drawings  indicate 
that  they  are  interested,  in  the  earlier  grades,  in  colors 
rather  than  in  form,  and  in  animals  and  children  rather 
than  in  adults. 

As  to  the  mental  powers  appealed  to,  Barnes  found 
critical  inferences  most  numerous  at  twelve  and  thirteen, 
and  Lindley,  interest  in  reasoning  and  puzzles  greatest 
at  twelve. 

At  about  twelve,  interest  in  history  greatly  increases, 
as  ail  studies  of  reading  interests  show,  probably  be- 
cause history  supplies  in  a  representative  form  new 
environment  and  experience,  but  more  particularly  be- 
cause the  social  instincts  direct  curiosity  to  the  study 
of  groups  of  people.  A  httle  later,  moral  and  religious 
questions  have  a  great  fascination,  probably  because  the 
regulative  instincts  are  developing.  ^Esthetic  interest 
also  increases  at  this  time. 

Since  curiosity  is  modified  by  every  new  instinct, 
changes  in  curiosity  may  serve  as  signs  of  the  develop- 
ment of  new  instincts.  Curiosity  serves  as  a  guide  by 
giving  complete  knowledge  of  everything  connected 
with  satisfying  the  instinct  that  excites  it.  The  boy's 
interest  in  fables  prepares  him  for  wise  action  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  individual  ends,  and  the  youth's  historical 
interest  in  groups  of  men,  for  performing  his  part  as  a 
social  being. 

CURIOSITY    AND    EDUCATION 

Long  ago  Plato  said,  "  Curiosity  is  the  mother  of  all 
knowledge;"  but  too  often  since  then  she  has  been 
regarded  as  merely  the  mother  of  gossip  and  scandal. 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS  — CURIOSITY  1 75 

The  latter,  however,  are  illegitimate  children,  resulting 
from  poor  feeding  and  union  with  small  and  unworthy 
passions.  The  legitimate  offspring  of  curiosity  are 
interest,  learning,  science,  and  love  of  truth. 

Children  enter  school  as  animated  interrogation  points, 
and  instead  of  having  their  mental  hunger  gratified, 
they  are  stuffed  with  knowledge  they  have  not  asked 
for,  and  required  to  answer  instead  of  being  led  to  ques- 
tion, until  their  intellectual  appetite  is  dulled  and  only 
the  most  stimulating  diet  appeals  to  them.  They  are 
led  to  study  only  ty  the  desire  for  approbation,  or  by 
some  form  of  compulsion  or  reward.  It  is  not  the  truth 
they  are  after,  but  the  words  and  acts  that  will  satisfy 
the  teacher,  hence  the  sHghtest  change  in  her  expres- 
sion or  tone  of  voice  often  leads  them  to  modify  their 
statements. 

Unfortunately,  curiosity  and  interest,  like  play,  are 
often  identified  with  amusement,  by  many  teachers,  when 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  healthy  curiosity  is  one  of  the  strong- 
est stimuU  to  effort.  Of  the  two  ways  of  exciting 
curiosity,  that  of  giving  new  experiences  by  showing  or 
describing  something  never  seen  before,  and  that  of 
directing  attention  to  unobserved  qualities  or  relations 
of  famiHar  objects,  the  first  is  unfortunately  the  mode 
more  often  used  by  those  who  try  to  interest  children  in 
their  lessons.  In  many  cases,  therefore,  teaching  has 
become  nothing  more  than  the  art  of  amusing.  The 
result  is  that  all  the  sweetness  is  taken  out  of  a  subject 
before  there  is  anything  of  value  learned  about  it,  and 
subsequent  teachers  find  it  almost  impossible  to  interest 
the  children  in  these  unpalatable  and  half-chewed  mate- 
rials.    Not  only  has  the  delightful  flavor  of  newness 


176  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

been  removed  from  the  subject,  but  the  mental  habit  of 
taking  rich  food  instead  of  working  for  daily  bread  has 
been  cultivated,  until  in  many  ways  the  children  are, 
intellectually,  pampered  weaklings.  Their  curiosity  is 
aroused  only  by  intellectual  doses  highly  seasoned  with 
the  new  and  marvellous,  administered  by  teachers  who 
know  of  no  other  way  of  appealing  to  interest. 

The  old-fashioned  discipline  of  rod  and  ferule,  wielded 
according  to  fixed  rules,  compelled  the  scholastic  pris- 
oners to  learn  their  trade,  and  thus  effective  intellectual 
workmen  were  often  turned  out,  who  had  performed 
difficult  and  unpleasant  tasks  till  they  had  no  thought  of 
hesitating  at  any  drudgery.  Unwise  attempts  to  carry 
out  the  imperfectly  understood  doctrine  of  interest  have 
developed  intellectual  laziness  and  repugnance  to  effort. 

Properly  understood  and  applied,  however,  the  doctrine 
of  interest  will  emancipate,  not  enervate,  children  intel- 
lectually. Just  as  a  free  laborer  does  a  vast  deal  more 
work  than  the  most  closely  watched  slave,  and  does  it 
with  a  pleasure  and  self-respect  the  slave  can  never 
feel,  so  does  the  child,  working  under  the  stimulus  of 
interest,  accomplish  far  more  intellectually  and  morally 
than  the  uninterested  urchin  who  slaved  at  his  task 
under  the  watchful  eye  of  the  old-time  teacher. 

Interest  that  is  educationally  valuable  is  not  that 
which  pleases  and  amuses  (though  a  little  such  interest 
is  helpful,  especially  with  young  children),  but  that 
kind  of  interest  which  causes  effort  to  be  put  forth  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  hunger  for  knowledge.  The  real  test 
of  interest  is  not  how  much  pleasure  do  the  children  get 
out  of  the  study,  but  how  much  effort  do  they  put  forth 
in  pursuing  it.     Curiosity,  like  play,  may  be  the  stimu- 


ADAPTIVE  INSTINCTS —  CURIOSITY  1 77 

lus  to  an  immense  amount  of  what  would  otherwise  be 
drudgery. 

The  conditions  most  favorable  for  rendering  curiosity 
a  strong  motive  to  effort  are  (i)  the  perception  of  the 
relation  of  what  is  being  studied  to  familiar  and  interest- 
ing experience  and  knowledge,  (2)  receptivity  to  the 
kind  of  knowledge  being  gained  because  it  is  suited  to 
the  stage  of  development  the  individual  has  reached. 
Many  other  things  are  helpful,  but  these  are  the  most 
important  essentials.  How  to  bring  about  the  first 
condition  is  the  problem  of  psychology  and  pedagogy, 
while  the  second  condition  can  only  be  secured  through 
child-study  investigations. 

The  purposes  of  education  must  determine  what  shall 
be  taught;  psychology,  how  or  in  what  order  subjects 
shall  be  taught,  that  each  subject  and  part  of  subject 
may  form  a  basis  of  interest  for  the  next ;  while  child 
study  must  say  when  and  how  certain  teaching  shall  be 
given,  in  order  that  the  natural  curiosity  and  interest  of 
each  age  may  be  utilized.  The  teacher  should  use  her 
skill  in  associating  studies  with  the  child's  instinctive 
tendencies  at  the  time,  and  with  his  more  recent  activi- 
ties, that  there  may  be  no  lack  of  natural,  healthy 
interest  regarding  every  subject  as  it  is  pursued. 

If  properly  appealed  to,  curiosity  alone  is  a  sufficient 
motive  for  the  invasion  of  every  fresh  field  of  knowledge  ; 
while  imitation  and  play  will  supply  the  practice  and 
drill  necessary  to  insure  continued  possession  of  it. 
These  instincts  may  very  properly  be  supported  by 
others,  especially  the  desire  for  approbation  in  the 
earlier  years,  the  pleasures  of  competition,  and  the 
desire  for  results,  in  the  later  years  of  school  life. 

N 


178  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  Has  the  search  for  scientific  truths  usually  been  carried  on  in 
order  that  they  might  be  directly  applied  in  practical  life,  or  merely 
that  the  truth  may  be  known  ?  Mention  some  such  truth  that  has 
proved  useful. 

2.  Give  illustrations  of  knowledge  of  environment,  gained  by 
yourself  or  by  children  through  mere  curiosity,  that  will  prove  or 
has  proved  useful  later. 

3.  Illustrate  how  stronger  or  newer  stimuli  excite  curiosity. 

4.  Give  examples  of  children  who  are  especially  curious  regarding 
certain  objects,  acts,  or  lines  of  thought. 

5.  Give  illustrations  of  the  relation  of  curiosity  (a)  to  other 
instincts,  (b)  to  past  experience. 

6.  Illustrate  from  your  own  experience  or  observation  how 
increase  in  knowledge  develops  new  phases  of  interest. 

7.  Show  how  interest  may  be  increased  through  new  experience 
gained  by  enlargement  of  mental  environment,  without  changing 
one's  location. 

8.  Illustrate  further  how  increased  knowledge  of  familiar  things 
has  increased  the  interest  of  yourself  or  of  others. 

9.  Give  illustrations  of  children's  interest  {a)  in  the  old,  {b)  in 
the  new,  {c)  of  fresh  interest  in  the  old,  after  study  in  other  lines. 

10.  Can  you  determine  what  were  the  causes  of  your  interest  in 
certain  kinds  of  reading  at  different  ages  ? 

1 1 .  Give  instances  in  which  children  seek  to  give  the  answers  the 
teacher  wants,  rather  than  to  find  out  and  state  the  truth. 

12.  Illustrate  what  children  will  sometimes  do  of  themselves  in 
the  way  of  investigation  and  study  when  curiosity  is  excited. 

13.  Give  illustrations  of  how  teachers  may  or  have  connected 
topics  with  recent  experiences  and  interesting  activities  outside  of 
school. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  curiosity  as  an  instinct,  see  Lindsay,  Mind  in  the  Lower  Animals, 
pp.  252-256 ;  Ribot,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions^  pp.  368-379 ; 
Groos,  Play  of  Animals,  pp.  214-222;  Morgan,  Comparative 
Psychology,  pp.  297-298. 


ADAPTIVE   INSTINCTS  — CURIOSITY  179 

For  researches  and  discussions  of  the  interests  of  children,  read, 
besides  the  observations  on  infants.  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed., 
Vol.  I,  pp.  15-17,  43-52,  83-93,  203-212,  222-227,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  338-351  ;  Shaw,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  152-167;  Taylor, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  497-511 ;  Laing,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XVI, 
pp.  281-390;  Wissler,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  139-146;  Ped. 
Sem..  Vol.  V.  pp.  523-540 ;  Clapp,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo..,  Vol.  XLIV, 
pp.  799-809  :  Griffith,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,Vo\.  IV,  pp.  285-287  ;  O'Shea, 
Ch.  S.  Mo..  Vol.  II.  pp.  266-278,  or  .V.  E.  A..  1896,  pp.  873- 
881  ;  Luckey,  A''.  £.  A.,  1897,  pp.  284-288;  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol. 
VII,  pp.  67,  96,  133,  156,  221,  245,  306,  335  ;  Harrison,  Child 
Nature,  chap,  ii;  Compayre,  Vol.  II,  pp.  17-28. 


CHAPTER   XI 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  — REGULATIVE 

I.    Moral  Instincts 

PREPARATORY    STAGE    OF    MORAL    DEVELOPMENT 

The  child's  instincts  are  nearly  as  independent  of 
each  other  as  are  individuals  in  the  social  organism. 
Each  instinct  stimulates  to  action  for  its  own  gratification, 
just  as  each  man  seeks  his  own  interests.  The  indi- 
vidual in  society  learns  that  certain  actions  are  undesir- 
able, because  they  result  in  other  persons  performing 
acts  that  are  unpleasant  to  him.  Out  of  such  experi- 
ences grow  the  laws  governing  society.  The  child  finds 
that  some  instinctive  acts  are  more  pleasurable  than 
others,  or  that  one  kind  of  act  interferes  with  another, 
and  thus  learns  to  regulate  his  conduct.  He  is  also 
impressed  less  directly  with  their  undesirability  by  the 
attitude  of  other  people.  For  example,  a  child  who  was 
drinking  water  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  his  dress  wet, 
said,  "  I  don't  care  if  it  does  run  down  on  me."  Mamma, 
"  But  I  care ;  it  isn't  nice,  and  if  you  do  it  any  more  I 
shall  take  your  glass  away."  Child,  "  I  won't  do  it  any 
more  then,  never." 

The  child  is  at  first  neither  moral  nor  immoral,  but 
unmoral.  He  is  acting  according  to  his  natural  instincts 
when  biting  and  striking  his  mother  as  much  as  when 
he  is  hugging  and  kissing  her,  and  no  more.     In  both 

i8i 


1 82  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

cases  he  acts  as  his  instincts  and  feelings  prompt, 
and  to  him  one  act  is  just  as  good  as  the  other.  Expe- 
rience, however,  soon  teaches  him  that  one  kind  of  act 
brings  pleasant  results  in  the  way  of  approbation  and 
favors,  while  the  other  brings  him  disapprobation  and 
perhaps  punishment.  He  thus  learns  that  some  acts 
are  better  than  others.  "  Better,"  however,  means  to 
him  merely  more  pleasurable  in  results  to  himself,  not 
morally  better,  for  of  that  he  has  no  conception.  He  is 
not  kind  or  cruel  in  a  moral  sense,  neither  is  he  truthful 
or  untruthful,  honest  or  dishonest ;  but  he  readily  learns 
to  be  whichever  secures  him  the  most  advantages. 

What  habits  of  action  he  shall  form,  or  what  he  shall 
come  to  regard  as  right  or  wrong,  is  wholly  a  matter  of 
experience  and  training.  The  law  of  his  nature  at  this 
time  impels  him  to  conform  to  his  environment  in  such 
a  way  as  to  get  as  much  pleasure  and  as  little  pain  as 
possible.  For  about  a  dozen  years  this  individualistic 
law  of  life  holds  almost  complete  sway ;  hence  this  is 
the  period  during  which  the  child  is  naturally  unmoral. 
It  is  distinctively  a  preparatory  stage  of  moral  develop- 
ment ;  yet  it  is  not  for  that  reason  any  the  less  important. 
The  foundations  of  a  future  less  individualistic  and  more 
altruistic  moral  Hfe  are  being  laid. 

MORAL    TRAINING    DURING   THE    PREPARATORY    STAGE 

In  this  stage  should  be  developed:  (i)  regularity  of 
physical  and  mental  processes,  (2)  the  consciousness 
that  it  pays  to  do  right,  (3)  the  tendency  to  inhibit  im- 
pulses, (4)  to  endure  hardships,  (5)  to  wait  for  future 
good,  (6)  to  take  pain  before  pleasure,  (7)  to  seek  the 
satisfaction  of  higher  instincts,  (8)  to  form  right  habits, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        1 83 

(9)  to  act  from  increasingly  higher  motives,  (10)  to  form 
right  ideals,  (n)  to  obey,  (12)  to  exercise  self-control. 

(i)  Since  regulatio7i  of  action  is  an  important  phase 
of  moral  training,  and  since  unconscious  actions  influ- 
ence conscious  choices,  the  preparation  for  a  moral  life 
may  begin  in  infancy.  The  foundations  of  morality 
should  be  laid  by  the  development  of  regularity  in  the 
more  or  less  unconscious  organic  processes  of  sleep- 
ing, eating,  and  eHminating  waste  materials  from  the 
body.  Parents  should  therefore  seek  to  estabUsh  regu- 
larity in  these  respects,  not  only  as  a  condition  of  health, 
but  as  a  solid  basis  for  the  development  of  a  stable, 
moral  character. 

(2)  As  soon  as  the  infant  notices  the  results  of  his 
actions,  consciousness  may  be  utilized  in  the  develop- 
ment of  moral  habits  and  the  acquisition  of  moral  truths. 
In  doing  this  one  must  see  to  it  that  right  actions  are 
followed  sooner  or  later  by  pleasurable  results  to  the 
child,  and  wrong  actions  by  disagreeable  results,  be- 
cause both  blind  instinct  and  acute  intelligence  impel 
to  the  repetition  of  actions  having  pleasurable  results, 
and  the  avoidance  of  those  whose  results  are  painful. 
The  child  should  come  to  realize  that  most  fundamental, 
though  not  the  highest,  of  moral  truths,  "  It  pays  to  do 
right." 

(3)  The  first  step  in  self-control  may  be  taken  by  get- 
ting children  to  iiihibit,  for  a  short  time,  organic  and 
instinctive  impulses.  An  assuring  word  that  causes  a 
child  to  stop  crying  for  food  till  preparations  for  giving 
it  to  him  are  completed,  may  become  a  sign  to  him  that 
if  he  is  quiet  his  wants  will  soon  be  satisfied,  and  the 
time  of   waiting  may   be   gradually  lengthened.     Care 


1 84  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

must  be  taken,  especially  at  first,  that  the  interval  be- 
tween assurance  and  satisfaction  is  short,  or  crying  will 
be  renewed,  and  the  word  intended  to  quiet  will  become 
instead  the  signal  for  a  period  of  crying.  The  cry  of 
the  infant  is  a  most  useful,  instinctive  mode  of  obtaining 
parental  help,  but  its  function  is  to  attract  attention  of 
parents,  rather  than  to  force  them,  by  its  continuance, 
to  respond.  The  latter  function  is,  however,  very  read- 
ily taken  up  if  a  long  period  of  crying  is  allowed  to  pre- 
cede the  satisfaction  of  wants.  Moral  development  is 
promoted  by  getting  the  child  to  inhibit  the  crying 
impulse  as  soon  as  possible,  by  quieting  words  and 
prompt  relief,  if  they  are  to  be  given  at  all. 

(4)  Repressing  impulses  and  doing  disagreeable  tasks 
should  also  be  encouraged  by  desirable  results  follow- 
ing such  actions.  The  child  who  can  be  induced  to 
stop  crying  when  hurt,  face  danger  when  afraid,  or  to 
continue  carrying  a  heavy  load  when  tired,  by  desire 
for  the  approval  he  will  get  as  a  "  brave  boy,"  is  gaining 
in  moral  development.  When  a  child  can  be  induced 
to  put  forth  effort  to  control  self  or  accomplish  any  task 
through  the  desire  to  satisfy  the  competitive  instinct  by 
winning,  he  is  also  developing  morally.  If,  however, 
he  gains  advantages  over  another,  not  by  effort,  but  by 
yielding  to  the  natural  impulse  to  cry  and  fret  about  the 
success  or  advantages  of  others  (as  when  jealous),  there 
is  a  development  of  undesirable  impulses  instead  of 
control,  and  the  effect  is  demoralizing. 

(5)  As  children  grow  older  they  should  learn  that  it 
often  pays  to  delay  the  gratification  of  an  impulse  for  a 
time,  in  order  that  a  greater  pleasure  may  be  experienced 
later.     "  If  you  eat  now  you  can  have  bread  only,  while 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        1 85 

if  you  wait  until  dinner  is  ready  you  may  have  other 
things."  "  If  you  will  keep  quiet  till  I  get  through,  you 
may  then  look  at  this  and  ask  as  many  questions  as  you 
wish,"  "  If  you  do  not  buy  candy  to-day  but  save  your 
pennies,  you  can  get  a  doll  next  week."  "  If  you  rest 
awhile  and  wait  till  the  others  are  ready,  I  think  you 
will  enjoy  your  game  more." 

(6)  "  IVork  before  play  and  pain  before  pleasure ;' 
is  a  good  motto.  If  a  disagreeable  task  is  to  be  per- 
formed or  pain  suffered,  in  connection  with  a  pleasure 
or  reward,  it  is  always  better  to  have  the  pleasure  or 
reward  last,  since  anticipation  lightens  the  pain  and 
effort,  perhaps  even  making  the  act  pleasurable,  while 
the  pleasure  afterward  is  enjoyed  all  the  more  because 
of  the  effort  by  which  it  was  obtained.  If  the  order  is 
reversed,  pleasure  is  lessened  by  dread,  and  pain  increased 
by  thought  of  previous  pleasure.  If  every  child  were 
led  to  form  the  habit  of  enjoying  reward  only  after 
earning  it,  the  world  would  be  vastly  happier  and 
better.  The  pampering  and  demoralizing  tendency  to 
get  what  has  not  yet  been  earned,  by  going  in  debt,  gam- 
bling, or  speculating,  is  the  natural  result  of  a  childhood 
that  has  been  allowed  to  take  the  sweet  first,  then  dodge 
the  bitter  or  to  take  it  with  much  fussing  and  grumbling. 

(7)  The  conscious  states  or  motives  preceding  action, 
as  well  as  those  succeeding,  are  significant  from  the 
dawn  of  volition,  and  increasingly  important  as  an  essen- 
tial element  in  moral  acts.  As  soon  as  an  action  be- 
comes purposive  rather  than  blindly  impulsive,  the  aim 
is  the  satisfaction  of  some  instinct.  Since  the  kind  of 
instincts  whose  satisfaction  is  most  sought,  determines 
in  a  large  measure  the  moral  character  of  an  individual, 


1 86  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

it  is  important  that  the  habit  of  seeking  to  satisfy  the 
higher  instincts  should  be  developed  as  far  as  possible 
even  in  early  childhood.  If  a  child  chooses  to  gratify 
the  higher  social  impulse  of  desire  for  approval  by 
offering  the  best  to  others,  instead  of  gratifying  the 
lower  individualistic  impulse  to  take  the  best  for  himself, 
he  is  forming  a  most  excellent  moral  habit.  If,  however, 
his  desire  for  approval  leads  him  to  say  what  he  does 
not  believe,  in  order  to  secure  the  favor  of  others,  the 
effect  is  demoralizing. 

(8)  It  must  never  be  forgotten  that  the  formation  of 
habits  is  the  important  thing  in  the  preparatory  stage  of 
moral  development,  since  they  will  ultimately  determine 
motives  and  ideals.  If  none  but  the  lowest  motive  will 
produce  right  action,  that  motive  should  be  appealed  to 
in  order  that  the  right  action  may  be  performed.  Again, 
no  motive,  however  high,  should  be  appealed  to,  if  it  is 
certain  to  fail  to  call  forth  right  action,  because  the 
separation  of  habits  and  ideals  thus  produced  is  sure  to 
disintegrate  moral  character.  The  general  rule  to  be 
followed  is,  be  stire  to  secure  right  actiojt  even  if  a  low 
motive  must  be  appealed  tOj  but  always  appeal  to  the 
highest  motive  that  will  be  effective.  If  children  are 
forced,  without  arousing  too  much  antagonism  on  their 
part,  to  do  as  they  should  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time, 
the  tendency  to  act  in  that  way  becomes  stronger  than 
to  act  in  any  other  way.  They  also  come  to  take  pleasure 
in  doing  what  they  have  developed  a  tendency  to  do, 
though  at  first  it  was  not  agreeable.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  matters  are  so  arranged  that  right  doing  always  has 
pleasanter  results  than  wrong  doing,  right  actions  are 
consciously  chosen  and  more  quickly  become  habitual. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        187 

Moral  progress  is  measured,  not  only  by  increase 
in  the  number  of  right  acts,  but  by  increased  tendency 
to  perform  acts  from  higher  motives.  A  child  who  is 
polite  for  a  long  time,  through  fear  of  punishment,  may 
remain  polite  because  of  the  social  advantages  thus 
secured.  Later,  he  may  be  polite  to  one  outside  of  his 
circle  from  the  kindly  motive  of  encouraging  him,  or 
from  a  genuine  feeling  of  brotherhood.  In  this,  as  in 
other  cases,  a  habit  formed  from  a  low  motive  may 
make  it  possible  for  a  higher  motive  to  be  effective. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  habit  of  politeness  may  be  more 
quickly  and  firmly  established  by  appeal  to  the  imitative 
instinct  and  the  desire  for  approval. 

(9)  In  general,  the  motives  to  action  may  be  ranked 
as  follows  :  the  pleasurable,  as  higher  than  the  dis- 
agreeable of  the  same  general  kind,  and  the  instincts 
to  be  satisfied,  in  this  gradation  —  individualistic,  adap- 
tive, parental,  social,  regulative.  Of  course  some  forms 
of  each  of  these  instincts  are  higher  than  some  in  a  class 
above  them,  for  instance,  the  social  desire  for  approba- 
tion is  not  only  lower  than  the  social  desire  to  be  helpful 
to  others,  but  also  lower  than  the  parental  desire  to  care 
for  children ;  hence  the  ranking  given  above  is  subject 
to  many  changes,  according  to  the  form  of  each  instinct 
involved. 

Any  substitution  of  a  lower  motive  for  a  higher  that 
has  hitherto  been  effective,  is  demoralizing.  A  man  is 
therefore  degraded  by  voting  his  party  ticket  for  money 
or  by  receiving  pay  for  granting  justice.  Personal  ser- 
vice is  often  unjustly  regarded  as  one  of  the  lowest 
occupations,  probably  because  those  engaged  in  it  are 
supposed  to  be  actuated  wholly  by  individualistic  motives, 


1 88  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

in  performing  acts  that  are,  in  their  nature,  social. 
Keeping  a  boarding-house  is  not  dishonorable,  but  it  is 
often  hard  for  one  who  has  hospitably  entertained  friends 
a  great  deal,  to  receive  guests  for  pay,  without  feehng 
that  she  is  in  part  doing  for  a  lower  motive  what  she 
has  been  in  the  habit  of  doing  only  for  a  higher  motive. 
Ministers,  doctors,  and  teachers  are  retrograding  morally 
if  they  are  thinking  more  of  the  pay  they  are  to  receive, 
and  less  of  the  good  they  are  trying  to  do.  Mechanics 
and  merchants  are  advancing  morally  as  they  think 
more  and  more  of  doing  their  work  well  and  of  render- 
ing good  service  to  the  world. 

Undoubtedly,  most  acts  are  performed  from  mixed 
motives,  but  usually  one  stands  out  in  the  individual's 
mind  as  the  controlling  factor.  When  an  individual 
is  consciously  acting  from  a  high  motive,  it  is  either 
insulting  or  degrading  to  try  to  make  a  lower  one 
prominent  in  his  consciousness.  To  offer  for  social 
favors  similar  favors  is  all  right,  but  to  let  another 
understand  that  he  will  gain  financially  by  social  favors 
or  by  philanthropy  is  either  insulting  or  demoralizing. 

To  impute  a  higher  motive  to  an  act  that  is  really 
being  performed  from  a  lower,  is  sometimes  almost 
equally  bad  in  its  effects,  because  the  individual  is  often 
thus  led  to  believe  that  he  is  really  acting  benevolently, 
when  his  act  is  wholly  selfish.  Men  who  pay  a  low  price 
for  a  good  supper,  therefore,  often  pride  themselves  on 
their  benevolence  to  the  church  or  other  cause. 

(lo)  Ideals  are  helpful  in  childhood  in  forming  habits, 
but  are  not  usually  strong  enough  to  be  depended  upon 
to  produce  right  action,  except  as  they  are  founded  on 
well-established  habits  or  supported  by  expectation  of 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  — REGULATIVE        189 

desirable  consequences.  For  example,  a  little  girl,  with 
clear  ideals  as  to  being  helpful,  thoughtful,  and  pleasant, 
and  a  genuine  desire  to  be  so,  rarely  holds  herself  to 
those  ideals  a  whole  day,  but  did  so  for  over  a  week, 
when  she  thought  a  promised  hammock  was  not  likely 
to  come  till  she  had  been  pleasant  for  some  time.  Un- 
conscious habits  of  right  action,  as  well  as  pleasurable 
results  of  acting  from  higher  motives,  are  important 
factors  in  the  building  of  effective  moral  ideals.  The 
training  given  in  the  preparatory  stage  should  not  be 
concerned  so  much  with  the  formation  of  conscious 
ideals,  which  at  this  time  are  usually  very  changeable, 
as  with  the  habits  and  feelings  that  underlie  them  and 
make  them  prominent  and  effective  forces  in  the  next 
stage  of  moral  development. 

(11)  Obedience,  which  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
chief  virtue  of  childhood,  is  important  not  for  its  own 
sake,  but  for  what  it  involves.  It  necessarily  involves 
inhibiting  and  controlling  impulses  of  all  kinds,  and 
produces  habits  of  acting  according  to  law.  This  is 
important,  since  in  a  state  or  an  individual  any  kind  of 
government  or  law  is  likely  to  be  better  than  anarchy. 
These  advantages  result  only  when  the  one  who  enforces 
the  obedience  is  entirely  consistent,  for  otherwise  the 
advantages  of  occasional  inhibitions  are  neutralized  by 
the  fact  that  no  settled  habits  of  action  are  formed. 

Obedience  to  personal  authority  is  in  reality  con- 
forming to  a  more  or  less  artificial  environment,  and 
it  fits  for  a  useful  and  effective  life  in  proportion  as 
this  artificial  environment,  which  inflicts  pain  and  pleas- 
ure for  the  various  acts  performed,  is  in  accordance 
with  natural  laws  and  moral  ideals.      If   it  results  in 


190  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

making  good  acts  painful  and  evil  ones  pleasurable, 
and  in  hatred  for  law,  it  is  distinctly  demoralizing  in 
its  effects,  as  is  also  the  case  when  only  lower  motives 
for  obedience  are  appealed  to.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  personal  authority  is  consistent  and  natural,  so 
that  obedience  involves  little  more  than  conformity 
to  the  natural  environment  of  the  child,  the  effects 
are  decidedly  good,  because  right  habits  are  more 
quickly  and  effectively  developed,  and  natural  results 
that  would  be  too  intangible  or  remote  to  be  effective 
are  made  real  a.nd  immediate  by  substitution.  Authority 
should  prevent  the  child  from  performing  acts  whose 
consequences  would  be  very  serious  or  fatal.  If  they 
are  immediate,  but  not  serious,  he  should  be  warned, 
then  allowed  to  perform  the  act  and  receive  the  natu- 
ral consequences.  For  example,  a  child  should  not 
be  prevented  from  touching  something  hot,  but  he 
should  not  be  allowed  to  eat  poison. 

The  person  who  exercises  authority  is  also  an  impor- 
tant addition  to  the  child's  environment,  and  exercises 
great  influence  for  good  or  ill  by  his  personality,  as 
well  as  by  the  way  in  which  he  exercises  authority  and 
calls  attention  to  higher  or  lower  motives  of  conduct. 

(12)  It  should  be  clearly  recognized  by  every  one  in 
authority  that  obedience  is  only  a  means  to  an  end, 
the  end  always  being  self-control.  Strict  control  by 
another,  till  habits  of  action  are  formed,  is  often, 
for  a  young  or  perverted  child,  the  best  preparation 
for  self-control,  for  it  makes  his  habits  his  aUies,  so 
that  he  has  what  he  lacked  before  —  the  power  of 
controlling  himself.  Arrest  of  development,  however, 
always  results  if  the  power  of  self-control  is  not  given 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        191 

a  chance  for  exercise  soon  after  it  is  developed.  Au- 
thority should  enforce  obedience  in  one  field  of  action 
after  another,  and  then  leave  the  child  free  to  control 
the  field  that  has  been  conquered.  Obedience  is  a 
temporary  and  immature  virtue,  which  becomes  mature 
and  lasting  only  when  it  grows  into  free  self-control, 
by  appropriating  outer  laws  and  making  them  inner 
standards  of  conduct. 

TRANSITION    STAGE    OF    MORAL    DEVELOPMENT 

Up  to  about  twelve  years  of  age  the  moral  condition 
is  almost  wholly  the  result  of  environment  and  train- 
ing. These  may  make  the  child  into  the  semblance 
of  an  angel  or  an  imp,  yet  he  can  be  neither.  He  is 
not  essentially  good  or  bad,  because  though  his  actions 
have  that  form,  they  have  not  that  spirit.  Every  action 
is  the  result  of  an  impulse,  a  habit,  or  a  choice,  that 
has  for  its  end  the  pleasure  or  advantage  of  self  in 
some  way.  This  is  the  one  law  governing  the  child's 
conscious  action,  whatever  instinct  or  motive  is  in- 
volved, and  however  remote  or  concealed  the  advan- 
tage to  self  may  be.  If  well  trained,  the  child  has 
learned  to  find  his  pleasure  in  acts  of  politeness  and 
kindness,  and  if  ill  trained,  in  rudeness  and  cruelty ; 
but  in  either  case  the  action  is  fundamentally  for  his 
own  ends,  not  for  the  good  or  hurt  of   another. 

With  the  dawn  of  pubescence,  however,  a  new  instinct 
—  the  parental  —  emerges.  In  its  very  nature  this  in- 
stinct impels  to  action  for  others  rather  than  for  self. 
The  inner  law  that  says,  "  Act  for  yourself,"  is  now  for 
the  first  time  opposed  by  the  law  that  says,  ''Act  for 
others."    The  choice  is  no  longer  merely  between  possible 


192  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

advantages  for  self,  or  ways  of  getting  them,  but  between 
acting  for  self  or  for  others.  Kind  and  selfish  acts  are 
now,  for  the  first  time,  morally  kind  or  selfish,  for  they 
represent  the  free  choice  of  actions  for  self  or  for  others. 
The  individual  has  begun  to  live  the  life,  not  merely  of 
the  individual,  but  also  of  the  race. 

If  he  has  been  prepared  for  this  by  cooperative  games 
in  which  he  acts  for  the  good  of  the  group  rather  than 
for  his  own  exaltation,  and  if  his  training  has  been  such 
that  he  already  has  the  habit  of  acting  for  the  advan- 
tage of  others,  then  there  is  no  break  in  the  moral 
progress.  Figuratively  speaking,  the  parental  instinct 
infuses  life  into  the  moral  mechanism,  the  wheels  revolve 
more  rapidly,  and  the  engineer  begins  to  direct  its  course 
according  to  his  own  judgment,  instead  of  merely  obey- 
ing orders  or  following  impulses.  The  youth  is  no  longer 
merely  an  individual,  but  one  of  the  world's  forces,  and 
he  feels  the  obHgation,  not  merely  to  live,  but  to  do.  It 
is  no  longer  himself  and  the  world,  but  himself  as  a  part 
of  the  world.  He  begins  to  feel  as  never  before  his 
own  responsibility  for  that  self.  The  old  impulse  to  get 
all  he  can  for  self  is  partially  replaced  by  the  impulse 
to  be  all  that  he  can  for  himself  and  to  do  all  that  he  can 
for  the  world. 

This  is  the  age  of  idealistic  imitation  and  of  ideals. 
Works  of  art,  heroic  lives,  and  religious  ceremonies  take 
on  a  new  meaning.  Ambitions  and  ideals  are  no  longer 
dependent  on  the  immediate  environment,  but  the  most 
beautiful,  noble,  and  high  are  chosen  from  the  larger 
world  of  history,  literature,  and  art.  In  the  earlier 
stage  of  this  wider  life,  the  most  attractive  ideals  are 
frequently  very  crude.     Boys  are  most  appealed  to  by 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        193 

action,  power,  and  courage ;  hence  not  merely  history, 
but  all  kinds  of  stories  of  adventure  in  which  marvels 
of  skill  and  bravery  are  shown  are  their  delight.  Such 
types  of  character  are  sometimes  imitated  regardless  of 
the  moral  character  of  the  actions  in  which  they  appear. 

With  girls,  there  is  something  of  the  same  attraction 
toward  the  strange  and  wonderful,  but  the  more  passive 
virtues  of  love  and  devotion  under  trying  circumstances 
are  most  interesting ;  hence  romantic  stories  are  much 
in  favor  with  girls  at  this  age. 

This  is  a  period  of  change  in  attitude  toward  ideals, 
which  are  for  a  while  often  contradictory  and  variable.  It 
is  a  time  of  transition  from  personal  authority  to  abstract 
law,  during  which  there  may  be  considerable  lawlessness, 
especially  in  cases  where  control  has  been  entirely  ex- 
ternal. The  rules  of  the  game  and  the  unformulated  rules 
imposed  by  the  customs  and  public  sentiment  of  the  class, 
school,  gang,  or  society,  are  usually  observed  with  the 
greatest  care.  The  social  customs  of  polite  society  and 
fashion  in  dress  are  often  first  despised  and  flagrantly 
violated,  then  respected  and  most  slavishly  followed. 
Laws  of  state  come  to  be  regarded  in  a  different  light, 
and  principles  of  morality  take  on  an  entirely  new  mean- 
ing. Laws  of  all  kinds  are  viewed,  not  simply  from  the 
standpoint  of  personal  interest,  but  as  a  part  of  the 
larger  life  of  the  world  now  revealed. 

MORAL    TRAINING   IN    THE    TRANSITION    PERIOD 

There  can  be  no  moral  action  where  the  individual 
does  not  have  the  chance  to  choose  for  himself ;  hence 
if  genuine  morality  develops  at  this  period,  it  must  be 
through  self-direction.     The  second  essential  is  plenty 


194  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

of  ideals  for  imitation  ;  the  third,  good  companions  ;  and 
fourth,  wholesome  public  sentiment  in  school,  class,  and 
social  circles. 

(i)  Self -direction  does  not  mean  that  no  authority 
shall  be  exercised  over  the  youth,  but  that  the  authority 
shall  not  be  merely  a  person  arbitrarily  dictating  and 
enforcing  what  the  youth  shall  do.  Personal  authority, 
however  valuable  in  a  previous  stage,  especially  in  the 
early  years,  must  now  be  relaxed,  and  example  and 
advice,  preferably  in  the  form  of  suggestion,  substituted. 
There  is  never  a  time  when  personal  authority  of  parents 
and  teachers  counts  for  so  little,  and  personal  character 
for  so  much.  Arbitrary  authority  is  ridiculed,  evaded, 
defied,  or  shame-facedly  yielded  to  as  unworthy  the 
developing  man.  At  the  same  time  the  youth  is  a 
most  ardent  hero-worshipper  and  imitator  of  what  to 
him  is  ideal. 

Commands  and  rules  should  be  based  on  general 
principles,  and  should  not  be  numerous  or  cover  minute 
details  of  conduct.  This  is  the  time  of  all  others  when 
outer  laws  should  be  adopted  as  inner  standards  of 
action,  and  are  likely  to  be,  if  they  are  founded  on  broad 
general  principles  and  prepared  for  by  previous  training. 

Under  wise  guidance,  this  is  also  a  favorable  time  for 
giving  practice  in  making  and  executing  laws,  or,  in 
other  words,  for  the  introduction  of  some  measure  of 
self-government.  At  this  age,  when  personal  authority 
is  losing  its  power,  when  the  attitude  toward  law  is  chang- 
ing, and  when  principles  of  action  for  life  are  being 
chosen,  nothing  will  help  more  in  producing  regard  for 
laws  and  a  f  eeHng  of  obligation  to  obey  them  than  expe- 
rience in  making  and  executing  them.     Responsibility 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        1 95 

of  some  kind  in  which  the'youth  has  perfect  freedom  of 
choice,  but  must  take  the  consequences,  is  the  kind  of 
freedom  needed,  rather  than  that  in  which  he  is  free 
to  choose,  but  is  at  the  same  time  shielded  from  the 
results  of  his  choice. 

(2)  The  ideals,  early  in  this  stage,  must  be  personal. 
Reading  is  the  great  source  of  them  at  this  time,  espe- 
cially for  boys.  Nearly  every  boy,  however,  finds  one 
or  more  heroes  in  his  local  environment,  usually  in  an 
older  man  or  sometimes  in  a  woman.  Some  of  these 
may  be  partial  ideals,  as  of  strength  or  skill  or  beauty 
or  knowledge ;  but  one  is  likely  to  be  a  moral  ideal,  the 
embodiment  of  all  that  is  noble  and  worthy.  Girls  are 
almost  sure  to  find  some  such  ideal  in  an  older  woman, 
and  often  the  feeling  inspired  is  not  unlike  that  felt 
later  for  a  lover. 

The  choice  of  such  personal  ideals  by  youths  and 
maidens  cannot  readily  be  directed  and  controlled,  and 
one  can  only  hope  that  it  will  be  fortunate.  The  actions 
of  such  chosen  demi-gods  and  goddesses  are  often,  un- 
consciously to  themselves,  the  source  of  keenest  joy  and 
srrief  to  their  admirers,  whose  whole  future  Hfe  is  not 
infrequently  moulded  by  them. 

Training  in  the  choice  of  moral  ideals  is  best  given 
by  presenting  instances  of  heroism  and  virtue  in  history 
and  story,  and  dwelling  on  them  long  enough  to  stir 
admiration  but  without  any  preaching.  Formal  state- 
ments and  discussion  of  general  principles  of  morality 
are  also  often  valuable  as  giving  youths  clearer  and 
better  standards  of  action.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
interfere  with  freedom  of  choice  by  exhortation  and 
urging ;  for  in  their  very  nature  ideals  must  be  freely 


196  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

chosen  by  the  individual  because  they  appeal  to  some- 
thing within  him,  and  not  because  somebody  else  finds 
them  good.  The  teacher's  art  consists  in  presenting 
them  in  a  form  likely  to  be  attractive.  If  principles  of 
conduct  are  stated  by  a  hero,  or  given  as  having  been 
practised  by  a  hero,  they  are  more  Hkely  to  be  accepted. 
Every  youth  should  have  opportunity  and  encourage- 
ment to  do  something  toward  carrying  out  his  ideals.  If, 
to  do  so,  he  must  sacrifice  self  to  some  extent,  all  the 
better.  This  is  preeminently  the  time  for  developing 
altruism  in  deed  as  well  as  in  thought.  The  youth 
should  now  attain  to  the  higher  stage  of  doing  right 
even  when  it  seems  sure  not  to  pay. 

(3)  Companions,  especially  chums,  are  chosen  by 
youths  and  maidens  themselves,  and  only  incidentally  can 
the  educator  determine  these  choices.  Boys  more  often 
have  a  group  of  companions,  and  girls  a  single  chum, 
with  whom  they  wish  to  be  every  moment  while  the 
intimacy  lasts,  which  may  be  for  days  or  for  years. 
Associations  with  these  companions  may  exercise  greater 
moral  influence  on  young  persons  than  association  with 
adults. 

(4)  The  public  sentiment  of  school  and  class,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  an  emanation  from  companions, 
is  to  some  extent  under  the  control  of  the  wise  teacher. 
He  should  not  only  know  what  it  is,  and  make  use 
of  it  in  governing  the  school,  but  he  should  mouldy  it 
into  a  finer  and  nobler  form.  The  general  moral 
tone  of  a  neighborhood,  a  school,  or  a  society  should 
also  be  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  in 
placing  a  youth,  for  nothing  more  surely  determines 
his  future  character. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        1 97 

II.    Religious  Instincts 

PREPARATORY  STAGE  OF  RELIGIOUS  DEVELOPMENT 

The  credulity  and  trustfulness  of  children,  and  their 
dramatic  and  symbolic  tendencies  during  the  period  of 
childhood,  make  it  possible  to  impart  to  them  the 
forms  of  any  religion.  Any  kind  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, especially  that  which  involves  observing  and  taking 
part  in  religious  ceremonies  during  childhood,  leaves  a 
permanent  impression  upon  the  mind  and  heart.  The 
theological  beUefs  taught  may  later  be  utterly  rejected 
by  the  intellect,  as  are  fairy  and  ghost  stories ;  but  the 
forms,  phrases,  and  ceremonies  still  stir  the  heart. 

It  is  perfectly  evident  that  there  can  be  no  compre- 
hension of  abstract  theology  during  this  period,  though 
some  sort  of  crude  doctrine  or  cosmology  is  needed  to 
satisfy  the  child's  questions  regarding  causes  and  reasons. 
That  the  deeper  religious  feelings  cannot  be  aroused 
during  childhood  is  less  evident,  but  scarcely  less  cer- 
tain. The  child  has  great  capacity  for  fear  and  faith, 
which  are  important  elements  in  reverence  and  wor- 
ship. He  also  has  a  strong  tendency  to  love  whatever 
brings  him  pleasure.  What  he  lacks  is  the  vital  element 
of  religion  in  its  higher  form,  the  impulse  to  self- 
surrender  —  the  spirit  that  says,  "  Do  with  me  as  thou 
wilt."  Every  instinct  of  the  child  says,  "  Do  for  me  as 
I  wish,  and  I  will  love  and  serve  thee."  This  sentiment, 
however,  is  not  greatly  different  from  much  of  that 
shown  forth  in  the  Old  Testament,  though  it  is  from 
the  deeper  sentiment  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
and  of  the  sacred  books  of  other  great  religions. 


198  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

RELIGIOUS    TRAINING    IN    CHILDHOOD 

The  training  should  not  be  predominantly  intellec- 
tual, for  the  child  is  incapable  of  forming  abstract  reli- 
gious conceptions,  and  the  ideas  that  he  does  form  are 
almost  sure  to  change  later.  An  element  of  mystery 
in  forms  and  ceremonies  also  makes  them  far  more 
fascinating  and  impressive  to  the  child  than  any  acts 
which  he  thinks  he  understands.  In  general,  there- 
fore, training  during  this  period  should  be  of  the  heart 
rather  than  of  the  head,  and  perhaps  even  more  of  the 
hand,  i.e,  a  training  in  doing,  or,  in  other  words,  taking 
part  in  religious  forms. 

The  training  must  vary  according  to  the  kind  of 
religion  for  which  the  child  is  being  prepared.  As  a 
preparation  for  all  kinds  of  religion,  however,  the  moral 
training  previously  described  and  the  cultivation  of  the 
spirit  of  reverence  are  distinctly  helpful. 

The  religious  training  of  CathoUcs  is  a  most  admi- 
rable preparation  for  that  religion  which  is  based  on 
authority.  The  large  number  of  symbols  and  the  cere- 
monies suggesting  unexplained  mysteries,  in  which  the 
children  take  some  part  at  stated  times,  are  woven  into 
their  life  in  a  way  that  makes  them  an  indestructible 
part  of  it.  They  are  thus  prepared  for  accepting  what- 
ever is  taught  by  the  embodiment  of  all  this  mystery  — 
the  church  and  its  priests,  who  are  beings  apart  from 
other  men. 

The  rehgious  training  of  Protestantism  is  often  far 
less  effective,  because  it  seeks  to  be  more  intellectual 
and  to  teach  absolute  truths  instead  of  symbols  of 
unexplainable   mysteries.      It   appeals  far  less   to  tlje-- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        199 

symbolic  and  dramatic  tendencies  of  childhood,  which 
are  then  strongest.  Authority  of  person  or  book  is 
the  basis  of  teaching,  because  most  of  what  is  taught 
cannot  be  brought  within  the  child's  experience.  Since, 
however,  religion  is  usually  taught  as  a  personal 
matter,  reason  is  continually  appealed  to.  The  child 
is  almost  compelled  to  think  and  feel,  if  taught  that 
not  the  things  he  does,  but  his  mental  states  when 
doing  them,  are  the  important  factors  in  religion.  In 
thus  ignoring  the  strongest  instincts  of  childhood  (sym- 
bolic and  dramatic  tendencies),  and  in  enforcing  author- 
ity while  appealing  to  reason  and  in  trying  to  make  the 
child  subjective  instead  of  objective.  Protestantism  has 
a  difficult  task,  and  it  is  a  wonder  that  it  succeeds  as 
well  as  it  does.  The  changes  needed  to  make  Protes- 
tant religious  instruction  more  effective  during  this 
period  are,  on  the  negative  side,  to  cease  trying  to  give 
children  much  theological  instruction  at  this  time  or  to 
make  them  consciously  and  subjectively  religious,  and 
on  the  positive  side,  to  give  more  opportunity  for  chil- 
dren to  take  part  in  whatever  religious  forms  and  cere- 
monies are  practised,  to  inculcate  reverence  for  sacred 
things,  and  to  develop  moral  habits. 

For  this  period,  the  cruder  and  more  objective  reli- 
gion of  the  Old  Testament,  and  some  of  the  narratives 
of  the  New  Testament,  are  far  more  suitable  than  the 
finer  and  more  subjective  teaching  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles  and  of  the  psalms.  Few  stories  in  all  litera- 
ture can  be  compared  with  those  of  the  Old  Testament 
as  instruments  of  moral  and  religious  instruction,  and 
their  moral  value  is  not  lost  even  though  later  they 
come  to  be  regarded  as  legends  or  myths. 


200  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Without  entering  into  details,  the  great  thing  in  reli- 
gious training  before  twelve  years  of  age  is  not  to 
make  children  religious  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the 
word,  but  to  prepare  them  for  becoming  religious  by 
cultivating  feelings  and  habits  that  will  be  in  accord- 
ance with  the  religious  impulse  when  it  is  felt.  In 
doing  this,  religious  conceptions  should  be  left  in  a 
crude,  plastic  form,  that  they  may  be  moulded  to  fit 
the  broader  life  of  the  individual,  instead  of  having  to 
be  torn  out  of  the  mind  and  replaced  by  others,  to 
which  early  feelings  and  habits  do  not  so  readily  attach 
themselves. 


THE   PERIOD    OF    RELIGIOUS   AWAKENING 

During  the  adolescent  period,  when  the  dawning 
parental  instincts  impel  the  youth  to  act  not  merely  for 
self,  but  as  a  part  of  the  world  and  for  the  good  of 
the  world,  he  is  driven  to  consider  not  merely  laws, 
people,  and  institutions,  but  also  the  Power  and  Intelli- 
gence that  lies  back  of  it  all.  At  this  stage,  when 
ideahstic  imitation  is  so  strong,  and  impulses  of  self- 
sacrifice  are  stirring  the  nature  of  the  youth,  the  Supreme 
Ideal  of  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  can  scarcely  fail 
to  attract  him  and  arouse  aspiration  and  devotion. 
The  vital  breath  has  come,  and  this  is  the  time  of  all 
others  for  the  development  of  genuine  religion ;  hence 
it  is  not  strange  that  this  is  the  period  during  which 
by  far  the  larger  number  of  people  become  consciously 
religious.  Space  does  not  permit  a  full  treatment  of 
this  topic,  hence  it  must  be  omitted,  or  studied  in  the 
references  cited  below. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        20I 


Exercises  for  Students 

1.  Give  illustrations  of  difference  among  various  nations  and 
among  different  children,  as  to  ideas  of  right  and  wrong. 

2.  Should  children  be  allowed  to  do  a  great  deal  of  lunching 
between  meals  ?  Why  ?  Mention  several  habits  not  usually  con- 
sidered moral,  that  may  be  a  basis  for  moral  action. 

3.  Illustrate  how  children  may  be  taught  that  it  pays  to  do  right. 

4.  Is  there  any  moral  value  in  having  a  child  wait  until  others 
have  been  served  at  the  table  ?  Why  ?  Illustrate  further  how  the 
power  to  inhibit  impulses  may  be  developed. 

5.  Have  hard  work  and  difficult  games  a  moral  value  ?  Why  ? 
Give  specific  illustrations. 

6.  Do  children's  savings  banks  have  any  moral  effects  ?    Why  ? 

7.  Is  there  a  good  psychological  basis  for  the  custom  of  having 
dessert  at  the  close  instead  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  meal  ?  A 
teacher  said,  "  I  will  read  you  a  good  story,  then  I  shall  expect  you 
to  study  very  hard  the  rest  of  the  afternoon."  Was  she  wise  ? 
Why? 

8.  A  little  girl  ate  very  slowly  because  she  did  not  wish  a  visitor 
to  think  her  greedy.  What  instinct  was  uppermost  in  that  case  ? 
Give  other  examples  of  the  conflict  of  instinctive  impulses. 

9.  Mention  some  cases  in  which  you  think  it  best  to  get  right 
habits  of  action  even  by  means  of  low  motives,  and  other  cases  in 
which  higher  instincts  may  be  aroused. 

10.  Indicate  whether  the  following  acts  were  elevating  or  degrad- 
ing morally,  (a)  Mrs.  Burnett,  when  a  little  girl,  would  not  say  a 
certain  name  was  pretty,  though  she  thought  the  lady  asking  her 
would  be  very  much  hurt  if  she  did  not.  (d)  A  boy  took  from  a 
dish  the  largest  and  reddest  apple  before  passing  it  to  a  visitor. 
(c)  A  little  girl  who  carefully  covered  a  younger  sister  who  had 
fallen  asleep  was,  upon  the  return  of  her  parents,  given  ten  cents  by 
her  father.  The  next  time  her  parents  went  away  she  got  her  little 
sister  to  lie  down  and  be  covered,  hoping  to  get  another  ten  cents. 
(cf)  People  who  have  been  very  hospitable,  frequently  after  their 
neighborhood  has  become  a  summer  resort,  show  kindness  to 
strangers  for  pay  only. 

Children  who  are  working  well  in  school  are  sometimes  offered  a 


202  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

valuable  prize  for  the  best  work.  Is  the  effect  the  same  when  the 
prize  is  money  as  when  it  is  opportunity  for  further  study  ? 

What  is  the  effect  of  offering  a  half  holiday  for  good  attendance  ? 
What  of  offering  a  treat  such  as  candy  ? 

Sometimes  a  child  is  induced  to  tell  of  the  misdemeanors  of  others 
by  threats  of  punishment  or  offers  of  reward,  and  in  other  cases  the 
attempt  is  made  to  get  a  child  to  tell  by  showing  him  that  the  good 
of  the  school  makes  it  necessary.  What  is  the  moral  effect  in  the 
two  cases  ? 

Bring  up  for  discussion  other  cases  of  substituting  or  mixing  of 
motives,  and  the  moral  effects  of  the  same. 

1 1 .  Illustrate  the  fact  that  ideals,  only,  cannot  usually  be  depended 
upon  to  govern  the  actions  of  young  children. 

12.  Give  instances  in  which  natural  results  are  best  for  children, 
and  others  in  which  authoritative  punishment  or  reward  is  best. 

Give  illustrations  of  temporary  authority  leading  to  self-control 
and  of  too  long  continued  authority  leading  to  arrest  of  develop- 
ment. 

13.  Report  from  your  own  experience  or  observation  changes  in 
feeling  and  attitude  toward  moral  questions  early  in  the  teens. 

14.  Describe  the  results  of  experiments  in  self-government  of 
which  you  have  known,  also  the  effects  of  having  to  bear  responsi- 
bility of  any  kind  either  at  home  or  in  school. 

15.  Recall  as  many  as  you  can  of  the  moral  ideals  that  you 
formed  from  the  people  around  you  or  from  reading. 

16.  Give  illustrations  from  experience  or  observation  of  the  moral 
influence  of  companions  upon  a  child. 

17.  Indicate  some  of  the  ways  in  which  sentiments  of  honor, 
truthfulness,  and  kindness,  or  other  sentiments,  may  be  developed 
in  a  school. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  moral  and  religious  instincts  and  their  prominence  at  puberty, 
see  Marshall,  chaps,  ix,  x,  and  xiv ;  Chadbourne,  chaps,  xi  and 
xii;  Ribot,  pp.  289-377 ;  Leuba,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp. 
309-385  ;  Coe,  Trans.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  97-108 ; 
also  "  The  Spiritual  Life,"  Gale,/r.  Ch.  and  Ad.,  September,  1900, 
pp.  17-25  ;  Jr.  Ch.  and  Ad.,  January,  1902  ;  Starbuck,  Psychology 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  INSTINCTS  —  REGULATIVE        203 

of  Religion,  or  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  268-314;  James, 
Varieties  of  Religious  Experiences;  Dawson,  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
Vol.  VII,  pp.  151-178,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  181-224;  Stanley,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  254-278. 

On  early  moral  and  religious  development  and  training,  see  Com- 
payre.  Vol.  II,  chaps,  v  and  vi ;  Harrison,  chaps,  iv,  vi,  vii,  and 
viii ;  Wiggin,  pp.  141-165  ;  Sully,  chaps,  vii  and  viii ;  Chrisman, 
Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  516-528  ;  Van  Liew,  N.  E.  A.,  1899, 
pp.  551-559;  also  Malleson,  Winterburn,  and  Proudfoot. 

For  investigations  of  children's  moral  and  religious  ideas,  see  Barnes, 
Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  270-271,  299-300,  332-337,  344-351? 
366-367,  Vol.  II,  pp.  62-70,  203-217, 283-307,  308-313,  323-337  ; 
Schallenberg,  Ped.  Son.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  87-96;  A.  G.  Spencer, 
Century  Mag.,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  238 ;  Barnes,  Ed.,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp. 
387-395,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  72-75  ;  Osborn,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  143-146;  Sears,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  159-187;  Street, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  5-40;  Brockman,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX, 
pp.  255-273;  Swift,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  65-91;  Sud- 
borough,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  327-333;  Hall,  Ajn. 
Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  59-70;  Kline,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X, 
pp.  239-266. 

On  moral  and  religious  training,  see  Adler,  Moral  Instruction  of 
Children ;  Forbush.  The  Boy  Problem ;  Koons,  The  Child'^s 
Religious  Life,  Hall,  A7n.fr.  Psych.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  59-70;  Ped. 
Sein.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  72-89,  Vol.  VIII.  pp.  439-469;  Luckey, 
N.  E.  A.,  1899.  pp.  127-136;  De  Garmo,  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  pp. 
165-173;  Dinsmore,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  74-80;  Spencer, 
Moral  Education-,  White,  School  Management,  chapter  on 
"  Punishments  ^^  Wolfe,  IV.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  431-435  ; 
Hinsdale,  Studies  in  Education,  Chap.  ii. 

See  also  Morrison,  fuvertile  Offenders ;  Royce,  "  The  Social  Basis 
of  Conscience,"  JV.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  196-204. 


CHAPTER  XII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTINCTS  — VARIOUS  RESULTANT 
INSTINCTS  AND  FEELINGS 

THE    COLLECTING    INSTINCT 

This  instinct  is  clearly  manifested  in  both  animals  and 
men.  When  food  and  materials  for  nests  and  homes 
are  collected  and  used  or  stored  for  future  use,  the  act 
is  of  advantage  to  the  individual,  and  often  to  the  spe- 
cies, as  a  means  of  preserving  the  young.  When,  how- 
ever, objects  of  all  kinds  are  collected  and  hidden  or 
stored  and  played  with,  as  is  the  case  with  many  kinds 
of  animals,  there  appears  to  be  nothing  of  immediate 
value  gained  by  the  act.  It  seems  as  if  the  usefulness 
of  certain  acts  of  collecting  has  led  to  an  unspecialized 
tendency  to  collect  objects  of  all  kinds. 

In  human  beings  the  instinct  is  very  strong,  and  as  a 
result  not  only  have  we  museums  of  all  kinds,  but  nearly 
every  individual  has  at  least  one  collection  of  some  sort. 

This  instinct  unites  with  other  instincts  in  a  way  that 
makes  it  impossible  to  determine  its  actual  strength. 
The  amassing  of  wealth,  which  is  an  indirect  way  of 
collecting  food  and  shelter  for  self  and  descendants,  is 
probably  often  due  as  much  to  the  blind  impulse  to 
busy  one's  self  in  collecting,  as  to  the  desire  for  money 
and  what  it  will  buy.  The  instinct  is  often  associated 
with  the  play  instinct,  since   the  objects  collected  are 

205 


206  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

frequently  an  important  source  of  amusement.  Curios- 
ity not  infrequently  contributes  to  the  impulse,  as  does 
also  the  tendency  to  construct.  The  aesthetic  tendencies 
are  also  often  gratified  in  the  objects  collected  and  their 
arrangement. 

In  children  the  instinct  is  manifested  to  some  extent 
in  the  second  year,  especially  in  connection  with  play; 
sticks,  stones,  etc.,  being  collected  and  kept  as  play- 
things. It  continues  all  through  life,  and  varies  not  so 
much  in  intensity  at  different  ages  as  in  the  objects 
with  which  it  is  concerned  and  the  conscious  motives 
with  which  it  is  associated.  In  children,  especially 
when  there  is  no  conscious  motive  for  the  act,  the  im- 
pulse is  extremely  variable.  Objects  of  a  certain  kind 
may  be  collected  and  guarded  with  the  greatest  eager- 
ness, as  if  life  depended  upon  their  possession,  then  in 
a  few  days,  or  perhaps  a  few  hours,  they  may  be  aban- 
doned, thrown  away,  or  destroyed.  The  sight  of  some 
one  else  appropriating  objects,  or  anything  that  suggests 
the  idea  of  securing  possession  of  objects,  is  sufficient 
to  awaken  the  collecting  impulse,  while  the  awakening 
of  another  interest  changes  the  form  of  the  impulse  or 
causes  its  disappearance  for  the  time  being ;  yet  en- 
tirely useless  collections  of  glass,  stones,  etc.,  are  some- 
times preserved  for  years. 

When  the  instinct  is  associated  with  some  other  in- 
stinct, such  as  the  individualistic,  the  competitive,  the 
imitative,  the  aesthetic,  or  that  of  curiosity,  the  impulse 
manifested  in  a  certain  line  in  childhood  may  continue 
for  months  or  years,  or  even  all  through  life.  Thus  a 
passion  for  collecting  may  develop  into  love  of  money 
or  even  miiserliness,  or  into  love  of  winning  in  any  kind 


VARIOUS  INSTINCTS  207 

of  contest,  or  into  the  pursuit  of  an  artistic  or  a  scientific 
career. 

The  elements  that  make  collections,  or  objects  in  a 
collection,  desirable  are,  according  to  the  reminiscences 
of  Barnes's  pupils,  variety,  quantity,  rarity,  beauty,  and 
personal  association  or  ownership.  The  reasons  given 
for  making  collections  are  emulation,  imitation,  pleasure 
of  ownership,  and  of  classifying  or  arranging. 

The  instinct  has  already  been  utilized  to  some  extent 
in  school,  but  there  are  undoubtedly  much  more  exten- 
sive and  fitting  uses  yet  to  be  made  of  it.  The  educa- 
tional value  is  not  so  much  in  what  is  collected  as  in 
the  physical,  mental,  and  volitional  activity  called  forth 
directly  or  indirectly  while  collecting. 

THE    CONSTRUCTIVE    INSTINCT 

The  general  tendency  to  construct  things  is  largely 
the  outgrowth  of  that  form  of  the  parental  instinct  which 
causes  suitable  places  to  be  prepared  for  the  shelter  and 
protection  of  the  young.  Some  constructions,  however, 
are  means  of  promoting  individual  ends,  such  as  obtain- 
ing food  or  shelter  for  self,  e.g.  webs  by  spiders,  holes 
by  ground-hogs.  In  animals  the  tendency  does  not  seem 
to  be  generalized,  but  is  manifested  only  in  constructions 
that  are  characteristic  of  and  useful  to  the  species.  In 
man,  however,  there  seems  to  be  an  impulse  to  construct, 
independently  of  any  end  to  be  gained. 

From  the  time  the  child  begins  to  pile  up  sand  or 
blocks,  through  the  ages  when  boys  construct  tools  and 
dig  caves,  and  men  design  temples,  bridges,  business 
blocks,  and  balloons,  the  constructive  instinct  is  promi- 
nent.    There  is  a  peculiar  pleasure  accompanying  these 


208       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

acts  of  construction,  perhaps  because  one  feels  and  per- 
ceives in  concrete  form  the  evidence  of  his  power  to  do, 
to  modify  and  change. 

The  destructive  tendency  is  probably  only  a  modified 
form  of  the  constructive,  for  it  gives  the  same  evidence 
of  power  to  change.  The  destruction  or  displacement 
of  something  is  also  often  merely  a  preliminary  to  the 
construction  of  something  else  of  the  parts  or  frag- 
ments that  are  being  made.  Children  frequently  break 
or  take  apart  complex  toys  and  make  some  crude  thing 
in  which  they  take  great  pleasure. 

The  constructive  instinct  naturally  associates  itself 
with  the  adaptive  instincts  of  imitation,  play,  and  curi- 
osity, with  the  aesthetic  and  expressive  instincts,  and 
sometimes  with  various  other  instincts  and  motives. 

Imitation  and  suggestion  are  the  natural  stimuli  to 
this  impulse.  Like  other  forms  of  play,  it  needs  to  be 
spontaneous  and  free.  Definite  directions  as  to  what 
shall  be  constructed,  and  how  it  shall  be  done,  often 
effectively  inhibit  the  constructive  impulse. 

The  order  of  development  of  the  impulse  is  from  the 
more  concrete  and  tangible  to  the  more  immaterial  and 
symbolic.  Making  things,  therefore,  naturally  pre- 
cedes making  pictures  of  them  or  compositions  about 
them.  In  general,  the  manual  element  is  naturally 
most  prominent  in  early  constructions,  and  the  artistic 
and  literary,  in  later.  At  present,  children  are  often 
guided  and  drilled  in  artistic  and  literary  creation  be- 
fore they  care  much  about  that  phase  of  construction, 
and  are  not  given  sufficient  opportunity  for  manual 
work  till  many  of  them  have  partially  or  wholly  lost 
their  interest  in  making  things. 


VARIOUS   INSTINCTS  209 

THE   ESTHETIC    INSTINCT 

The  biological  value  of  this  instinct  is  not  easily  dis- 
cerned. It  is  most  satisfactorily  explained  as  a  result- 
ant tendency  rather  than  as  a  primarily  useful  instinct. 
The  idea  that  insects  select  flowers  that  are  beautiful 
for  fertilization,  and  hence  such  flowers  survive,  and 
that  females  select  the  mates  most  beautiful  in  appear- 
ance and  action,  and  thus  promote  the  development  of 
the  beautiful,  leads  to  the  rather  absurd  conclusion  that 
all  the  beauty  of  organic  life  is  the  result  of  the  good 
taste  of  the  lower  animals.  The  more  reasonable  view 
is,  that  the  qualities  of  plants  or  animals  that  attract  in- 
sects and  mates,  or  favor  avoidance  of  enemies,  are  pre- 
served by  natural  selection.  In  other  words,  the  useful 
sui'vives.  It  becomes  agreeable  according  to  the  gen- 
eral law  of  accommodation  by  which  every  organ  of  every 
animal  comes  to  respond  in  the  most  favorable  way  to 
every  impression  that  is  often  repeated.  Leaves  and 
grass  are  green  because  the  elements  favoring  plant 
growth  give  them  that  color,  and  green  is  pleasant  and 
restful  to  the  eye  because  in  the  course  of  ages  the 
eye  has  become  accommodated  to  green.  For  a  similar 
reason  we  find  grace  and  beauty  in  nearly  all  forms  of 
life  and  action. 

Although  the  aesthetic  reaction  is  in  a  large  measure 
playful  (the  product  of  the  excess  of  life  above  what  is 
necessary  to  its  maintenance),  yet  it  is  always  closely 
associated  with  the  useful  from  which  it  has  evolved. 
Anything  suggesting  want  of  equilibrium  or  strength 
fails  to  appear  beautiful  because  such  objects  have  not 
been  useful,  and  hence  not  numerous  and  permanent 
p 


210  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

enough  to  result  in  favorable  accommodation  to  them. 
Symmetry  and  a  position  in  accordance  with  the  law  of 
gravity  are  therefore  universal  elements  of  beauty.  For 
similar  reasons  harmony  of  parts  and  unity  of  the 
whole  is  a  universal  requisite  of  beautiful  objects. 
The  elements  of  beauty  that  are  associated  with  uni- 
versal laws  of  existence  and  permanency  are  therefore 
responded  to  in  approximately  the  same  way  by  all 
nations  of  people. 

Those  that  are  associated  with  local  characteristics 
and  customs,  on  the  other  hand,  are  responded  to  dif- 
ferently by  each  nation,  tribe,  and  community.  For 
example,  the  peculiar  blues  of  Scandinavian  art  are  not 
so  much  enjoyed  by  people  of  other  countries  where 
they  are  rarely  found  in  nature.  Our  music,  also,  is  as 
painful  to  the  Chinese  as  is  theirs  to  us. 

Recent  experiences  make  wonderful  changes  in  the 
aesthetic  reaction.  Even  in  the  same  community  the 
beautiful  sleeves  or  hats  of  last  year  are  "  horrid "  a 
year  or  two  later.  What  is  common  for  temporary 
reasons,  as  well  as  what  is  common  because  constantly 
useful,  comes  to  be  regarded  as  beautiful ;  hence  beauty 
is  in  part  a  matter  of  style  or  custom. 

Since  the  experience  of  each  individual  differs  from 
that  of  every  other,  each  person  has  also,  in  a  measure, 
his  own  standards  of  beauty.  Purely  personal  associa- 
tions aroused  by  an  object  sometimes  have  more  influ- 
ence upon  one's  judgment  than  the  more  universal  and 
fundamental  elements  of  beauty. 

Standards  of  beauty  are  therefore  partially  determined 
by  universal  laws  of  use  and  beauty,  partially  by  local 
surroundings,  customs,  and  style,  and  partially  by  indi- 


VARIOUS   INSTINCTS  211 

vidual  peculiarities  of  temperament,  experience,  and 
training. 

The  aesthetic  instinct  is  closely  connected  with  several 
other  instincts.  Whenever  certain  forms  of  the  play- 
impulse  are  clearly  marked,  either  in  animals  or  chil- 
dren, there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  there  is  a 
crude  form  of  aesthetic  appreciation.  This  is  especially 
true  of  all  playful  exhibitions  by  animals,  of  form,  color, 
movement,  and  voice,  by  which  they  and  their  compan- 
ions, especially  mates,  are  pleased.  Such  acts  of  show- 
ing off  and  of  adornment  are  common  among  all  savage 
tribes  and  are  very  characteristic  of  children. 

The  aesthetic  impulse  is  thus  a  form  of  the  play  in- 
stinct and  closely  associated  with  the  parental  and  social 
instincts.  It  is  not  less  closely  associated  with  the  rhyth- 
mic, dramatic,  constructive,  and  expressive  instincts. 
The  joy  of  doing  always  culminates  in  the  pleasure 
of  contemplating  the  beauty  of  the  product  or  the  per- 
formance. The  impulse  to  express  mental  states  also 
reaches  its  climax  when  the  expression  itself  is  beautiful. 

The  development  of  the  aesthetic  impulse  is  greatly 
influenced  by  the  development  of  the  instincts  with 
which  it  is  associated.  It  cannot,  therefore,  reach  its 
deepest  and  broadest  development  until  after  puberty. 
In  early  childhood  the  aesthetic  sense  is  largely  sensory; 
color,  sound,  and  rhythm  being  the  most  effective  stimuli. 
Beauty  of  form,  harmony,  and  unity  become  more  im- 
portant as  the  mind  develops  and  standards  are  formed 
by  habit  and  training.  Colored  pictures  and  those  with 
subjects  interesting  to  young  children  therefore  appeal 
more  to  them  than  the  most  artistic  black  and  white 
pictures. 


212  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Vocal  skill  and  auditory  appreciation  develop  much 
earlier  than  manual  skill  and  visual  appreciation  (except 
in  the  case  of  colors).  Children  enjoy  rhythm,  melody, 
and  the  act  of  singing  much  sooner  than  they  ap- 
preciate symmetry  of  form,  unity  of  design,  and  the 
power  to  make  beautiful  forms.  Lancaster's  investi- 
gations show  that,  on  the  average,  great  musicians 
achieved  their  first  success  at  nine  or  ten  years  of  age  ; 
while  artists  have  not  obtained  corresponding  success 
until  about  eighteen  years  of  age. 

That  the  aesthetic  instinct  should  be  developed  is 
admitted  by  all,  but  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  best  method.  Should  only  the  highest  art  be  shown 
children,  even  though  they  do  not  appreciate  it,  or 
should  they  be  allowed  to  revel  in  bright  colors  and 
sharp  contrasts  until  their  aesthetic  appreciation  be- 
comes less  crude  ?  It  is  of  no  use  to  place  before  them 
high  art  that  excites  no  interest  or  feeling,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  continued  association  with  crude  and  imper- 
fect art  develops  wrong  standards.  Nature  gives  the 
best  models  because  universal  laws  of  beauty  are  shown 
in  every  flower,  leaf,  and  twig.  Other  miOdels  for  chil- 
dren should  be  chosen :  first,  because  they  exemplify 
fundamental  laws  of  beauty ;  and,  second,  because  they 
have  qualities  that  will  attract  the  attention  and  arouse 
the  interest  of  children.  Great  works  of  art  that  appeal 
to  children  because  of  their  color,  or  the  subject  repre- 
sented, will  mould  their  taste ;  while  those  that  fail  to 
attract  their  attention  will  have  little  or  no  influence. 
Care  should  therefore  be  taken  that  pictures  in  the 
schoolroom  are  both  artistic  and  interesting. 


VARIOUS  INSTINCTS  213 

THE   MIGRATORY   INSTINCT 

In  its  primitive  form  this  instinct  is  probably  nothing 
more  than  a  manifestation  of  the  general  tendency  to 
act  so  as  to  increase  or  get  more  of  a  favorable  stimulus 
already  received.  At  a  certain  season  of  the  year,  sal- 
mon, for  example,  experience  bodily  changes  preparatory 
to  the  production  of  young,  that  cause  them  to  move  so 
as  to  get  into  an  environment  more  and  more  favorable 
to  their  present  bodily  state  as  regards  temperature, 
chemical  condition,  etc.  The  result  is  that  after  many 
days  they  find  themselves  in  the  fresh  water  where 
their  eggs  were  deposited  the  year  before.  After  the 
breeding  season,  movement  in  the  opposite  direction 
is  more  favorable,  and  the  ocean  again  becomes  their 
home. 

This  is  the  fundamental  form  of  the  instinct  which 
makes  every  animal,  including  man,  experience  an  im- 
pulse to  migrate  when,  through  changes  in  himself  or 
his  surroundings,  he  is  out  of  harmony  with  his  environ- 
ment. The  impulse  is  felt  in  the  spring  by  nearly 
every  one  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Some  persons, 
such  as  tramps,  pioneers,  and  travellers,  never  become 
so  firmly  settled  and  accommodated  to  any  environment 
that  they  do  not  yield  to  the  migratory  impulse. 

Children  of  two  or  three  years  nearly  always  have  a 
period  of  running  away.  Later,  the  impulse  to  play 
truant  from  school  or  to  leave  home  often  comes,  and 
is  frequently  acted  upon  without  conscious  purpose  or 
reason.  The  impulse  is  especially  strong  during  the 
period  of  adolescent  changes,  and  if  there  is  not  actual 
running  away  there  is  at  least  a  strong  desire  to  travel. 


214  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Special  causes  of  discontent  often  bring  on  or  increase 
such  impulses. 

THE   RHYTHMIC   INSTINCT 

The  universal  tendency  to  rhythm  in  action  may  be 
considered  under  the  head  of  instinctive  tendencies, 
though  it  is  really  an  organic  and  automatic  tendency 
even  more  fundamental  than  an  instinct. 

Rhythm  is  a  marked  feature  in  physical  phenomena 
as  well  as  in  plant  and  animal  life.  In  man,  all  bodily 
processes  are  rhythmic,  and  all  repeated  movement 
tends  to  take  a  rhythmic  form.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  consciousness  is  rhythmic.  There  are 
rhythms  of  attention,  activity  is  followed  by  rest,  and 
one  emotional  extreme  is  succeeded  by  its  opposite. 
Consciousness  even  makes  rhythmic  what  is  objectively 
without  rhythm,  as  when  continuous  and  uniform  beats 
of  a  metronome  are  heard  as  rhythmic  beats. 

The  more  instinctive  form  of  the  rhythmic  tendency 
is  shown  in  the  impulse  to  produce  rhythmic  move- 
ments and  sounds,  and  to  appreciate  or  respond  in  a 
particular  way  when  such  rhythms  are  produced  by 
others.  Both  of  these  tendencies  are  manifested  in  the 
first  few  months  of  life.  The  tendency  remains  much 
the  same  all  through  life  except  that  the  rhythms  be- 
come more  complex.  The  rhythm  of  conversation, 
music,  and  poetry  is  often  appreciated  long  before 
the  other  elements  of  which  they  are  composed. 
Mother  Goose  rhymes  and  some  of  Tennyson's  finest 
poems  are  enjoyed  by  children  for  exactly  the  same 
reason,  i.e.  their  rhythmic  character.     Many  games  also 


VARIOUS   INSTINCTS  21$ 

owe   their   charm   to   the   opportunity  they  afford   for 
rhythmic  sounds  and  movements. 

RELATION    OF    INSTINCTIVE    ACTIONS    TO    FEELINGS 

In  general,  an  instinct,  as  Professor  James  says,  is  a 
tendency  to  act;  and  an  emotion,  a  tendency  to  feel. 
Since  most  instinctive  actions  are  at  least  occasionally 
accompanied  by  feeling,  there  is  an  emotion  for  every 
instinct.  Every  emotion  has  also  its  appropriate  bodily 
expression  which  varies  somewhat  from  the  correspond- 
ing instinctive  action. 

The  tense  muscles,  labored  breathing,  pale  or  flushed 
face,  quickened  heart  beat,  and  irregular  movements 
of  anger  are  only  partially  reproduced  in  the  purely 
instinctive  movements  of  fighting.  The  act  of  fighting 
is  exhilarating  and  pleasurable,  while  anger,  especially 
when  it  takes  the  form  of  irritation  and  hate,  is  rather 
painful  and  depressing.  Anger  appears  whenever  an 
action  of  any  kind  is  interfered  with,  as  is  clearly  shown 
in  young  babies.  The  resulting  irregular,  varied,  and 
vigorous  movements  often  overcome  the  interference, 
and  fighting  movements  are  probably  the  result  of  the 
selection  of  the  most  favorable  of  these.  When  the 
stimulus  to  action  continues  without  the  obstruction 
being  removed,  irritation  or  sullenness  and  smouldering 
hate  of  the  cause  of  the  interference  are  likely  to 
result. 

Jealousy  and  envy  are  produced  by  the  sight  of  an- 
other enjoying  the  pleasures  of  a  loved  being  or  object. 
These  emotions  seem  to  be  experienced  by  nearly  all 
species  of   animals   and   are   usually  especially  promi- 


2l6  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

nent  in  children.  The  tendency  to  them  remains 
strong  all  through  life,  but  is  suppressed  and  covered  up 
by  training  and  social  convention. 

Humorous  emotions  are,  in  nature  and  cause,  the  oppo- 
site of  those  of  anger.  Instead  of  interference  with  activ- 
ity, when  the  sense  of  humor  is  aroused  there  is  a  sudden 
opening  of  a  channel  of  free  activity.  Any  sudden  stimu- 
lus giving  rise  to  playful  movements  is  likely  to  arouse 
the  emotion  in  young  children  and  perhaps  in  animals. 
The  delight  of  children  in  "  peek-a-boo,"  and  in  all  play 
in  which  there  is  a  sudden  transformation  that  may  be 
accompanied  by  movements  of  laughing,  jerking  heads 
away,  running,  etc.,  indicates  the  early  rise  of  this 
emotion.  When  a  child  of  less  than  two  suddenly  turns 
his  head  away  from  the  one  he  has  offered  to  kiss,  and 
runs  off  laughing,  the  presence  of  humor  is  unmistak- 
able. In  general,  humor  is  the  result  of  a  more  or  less 
serious  form  of  physical  or  mental  reaction  being  sud- 
denly converted  into  a  playful  form.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, humor  and  pathos  are  often  associated,  and  ''  there 
is  only  a  step  from  laughter  to  tears."  Humor  is  a 
permanent  emotion,  as  play  is  a  permanent  instinct, 
but  it  is  stronger  in  childhood  than  in  old  age.  The 
stimuli  to  humor,  like  the  forms  of  playful  activity, 
vary  greatly  with  age.  The  child's  humor  is  often 
nonsense  to  the  adult,  and  the  adult's,  incomprehensible 
to  the  child ;  but  whenever  they  can  play  together  they 
meet  on  a  common  basis. 

The  emotions  of  awe  and  reverence  are  accompani- 
ments of  reactions  which  involve  little  or  no  movement 
because  there  is  no  movement  suited  to  the  stimulus 
which  arouses  them.     The  object  arousing  the  emotion 


VARIOUS  INSTINCTS  217 

is  impressive  but  not  exciting,  and  there  is  no  fitting 
motor  response  except  the  more  or  less  complete 
inhibition  of  movement.  It  is  related  to  that  form  of 
the  fear  instinct  in  which  safety  is  gained  by  keeping 
still;  but  the  object  is  less  definitely  fearful,  and  is 
attractive  rather  than  repulsive. 

RELATION    OF    FUNDAMENTAL    STIMULI    TO    FEELINGS 

There  are  many  kinds  of  stimuli  that  have  affected 
the  development  of  mind  in  animals  and  men  from  the 
earliest  ages.  Heat  and  cold,  fire  and  frost,  light  and 
darkness,  the  clouds  and  heavenly  bodies,  water  and  earth, 
trees  and  flowers,  birds  and  animals,  heights  and  depths, 
open  and  closed  spaces,  feathers  and  fur,  eyes  and 
teeth,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  more  or  less  constant  stimuli 
that  mould  mind  in  the  race  and  the  individual.  A 
large  amount  of  data  regarding  the  feelings  and  ideas 
excited  by  these  phenomena  of  nature  has  been  col- 
lected from  folklore,  reminiscences  of  adults,  and  obser- 
vation of  children,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Hall. 
This  material  is  very  interesting  and  suggestive,  but 
exceedingly  diverse.  This  is  probably  to  be  expected, 
since  the  favorable  or  unfavorable  character  of  these 
phenomena  varies  with  the  species  concerned  and  with 
various  conditions,  surroundings,  and  experiences  of 
the  species  and  the  individual.  Thus  water  or  fire  may 
be  fascinating  to  one,  terrifying  to  another,  and  tranquil- 
lizing to  a  third,  or  each  of  these  to  the  same  individual, 
when  appearing  in  special  forms. 

It  is  evident  also  from  the  descriptions,  and  from  well- 
known  laws  of  association,  that  many  of  the  emotions 
excited  by  these  stimuli  are  the  result  of  early  experi- 


2l8  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ences  of  the  individual  with  such  stimuli,  or  of  the 
influence  of  the  words  and  actions  of  adults  in  connec- 
tion with  them.  It  is  utterly  impossible  from  the  studies 
thus  far  made  to  say  how  far  these  mental  states  or 
*'  psychoses "  are  due  to  hereditary  racial  experiences 
and  how  far  to  individual  experiences  in  connection 
with  social  heredity. 

The  nature  and  development  of  the  emotional  life  of 
man  can  never  be  understood  till  we  have  learned  more 
regarding  the  universal  effects  of  instinctive  actions, 
and  of  the  more  constant  and  universal  stimuli,  upon 
mental  activity  and  feeling.  Many  years  must  elapse 
before  such  knowledge  can  be  obtained. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  Report  full  details  of  one  or  more  collections  that  you  have 
made.  Give  some  specific  illustrations  of  the  way  in  which  the  col- 
lecting instinct  may  be  utilized  in  education.  Are  ready-made  col- 
lections of  as  much  value  as  pupil-made  collections  ?  Is  it  of  any 
advantage  to  children  to  make  scrap-books? 

2.  A  boy  of  four  worked  a  considerable  part  of  two  days  con- 
structing a  tool  box  out  of  laths,  and  a  very  restless  little  girl  worked 
steadily  for  two  hours  sewing  on  a  dress  for  her  doll.  What  does  this 
indicate  ?  Give  a  number  of  illustrations  of  ways  in  which  the  con- 
structive instinct  may  be  utilized  in  the  diflferent  grades  in  the  school. 

3.  Report  instances  where  children  have  been  greatly  affected  by 
what  they  regarded  as  very  beautiful  or  ugly.  Mention  various 
ways  in  which  the  aesthetic  impulse  may  be  cultivated  directly  and 
indirectly  in  school. 

4.  Give  illustrations  from  your  own  experience  or  observation  of 
the  strength  of  the  migratory  instinct.  May  mental  changes  be  made 
to  take  the  place  of  physical  ones,  e.g.  imaginary  journeys  for  real 
ones  ?     Illustrate. 

5.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  strength  of  the  rhythmic  ten- 
dency, and  show  how  it  may  be  utilized  in  school. 


VARIOUS   INSTINCTS  219 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  the  instinctive  basis  of  various  emotions. 

7.  Reminiscences  and  observations  regarding  the  influence  of  light 
and  darkness,  and  perhaps  of  other  stimuli,  should  be  reported. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  children's  collections,  read  Barnes,  Studies,  Vol.  I,  pp.  144-146 ; 
C.  Frear  Burk,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  179-207  ;  Groszmann, 
Jr.  Ch.  and  Ad.,  April,  1901,  pp.  377-385. 

On  the  constructive  instinct,  see  Small,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XI, 
pp.  152-153  ;  and  on  its  use  in  education,  see  Dewey,  The  School 
and  Society. 

On  aesthetic  feelings,  see  Ribot,  pp.  328-367 ;  Scott,  '•  Sex  and 
Alt,"  A?H.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  153-226;  Harris,  A".  E.  A., 
1897,  pp.  330-338;  Chamberlain,  pp.  173-189;  Sully,  chap,  ix ; 
Brown,  '-Art  in  Education,''  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  112-121. 

On  migratory  impulses,  see  Kline,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  381-420; 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  1-8 1  ;  Dinsmore,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol. 
IX,  pp.  183-186;  Brooks,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LII,  pp.  784-798. 

On  rhythm,  see  Bolton,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  145-238  ;  Sears, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VIII.  pp.  3-34;  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIII, 
pp.  28-61. 

On  various  impulses  and  feehngs,  see  Burk,  '•  Teasing  and  Bullpng,"" 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  336-371  ;  Bolton,  "  Hydro-Ps3xhoses," 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  169-227;  Hall,  •' TickHng  and 
Laughing,"  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  1-41  ;  Hall  and  Smith, 
"  Reactions  to  Light  and  Darkness,"  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIV, 
pp.  21-83  ;  Hall  and  Brown,  '•  Fire,  Heat,  Frost,  and  Cold,''  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  27-85  ;  Hall  and  Wallin,  ^*  How  Children  and 
Youth  Think  about  Clouds,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  460-506; 
Ellis,  ••  Fetichism  in  Children,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  205- 
220;  France,  "Gambling  Impulse,"  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIII, 
pp.  364-407  ;  Chamberlain,  The  Child  as  Revealing  the  Past, 
chap,  vii ;  Small,  "  Methods  of  Manifesting  the  Instinct  for  Cer- 
tainty," Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  313-380;  Phillips,  "The Teach- 
ing Instinct,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  188-245  5  Arnett,  "Origin 
and  Development  of  Home  and  Love  of  Home,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol. 
IX,  pp.  324-365  ;  Lindiey  and  Partridge,  '•  Some  Mental  Automa- 
tisms," Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  41-60. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    INSTINCTS —  THE    EXPRESSIVE 
INSTINCT 

ORIGIN,    NATURE,    AND    FORMS 

I' 

This  instinct  belongs  with  the  resultant  and  miscel- 
laneous group  because  it  owes  its  origin  to  various  other 
instincts.  Expression  is  a  means  of  frightening  enemies, 
and  communicating  with  friends  regarding  food  and 
danger,  consequently  it  has  been  developed  in  the 
attainment  of  individual,  parental,  and  social  ends. 

^In  the  lowest  animals,  expression,  so  far  as  there  is  any, 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  feelers  or  antennae  (notably 
in  the  case  of  ants),  but  in  higher  animals  the  chief  means 
used  are  sounds.  Most  mammals  and  birds  have  from 
two  or  three  to  a  dozen  different  calls  which  are  appro- 
priately responded  to  by  others  of  their  species.  In 
man,  the  expressive  instinct  reaches  its  highest  devel- 
opment because  of  his  social  nature  and  the  perfectness 
of  his  vocal  organs,  and  also  because  of  the  complexity 
of  the  mental  states  to  be  expressed.  Instinctive 
emotional  expression  and  expressive  gestures  are  so 
effective  that  savages,  without  a  word  of  artificial  lan- 
guage in  common,  can  communicate  more  accurately 
than  any  of  the  lower  animals. 

Man  is  not  limited,  however,  to  the  language  of  natu- 
ral signs.     Every  race  has  formed  an  artificial  language 

221 


222  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

of  arbitrary  symbols.  Animals,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
no  artificial  language,  and  only  a  few  of  them  can  use 
such  language  even  in  an  imitative  way.  In  man,  the 
need  for  such  a  language  is  so  great,  and  the  instinct  of 
expression  so  strong,  that  children  who  had  never  heard 
any  language  would  probably  form  a  crude  one  suited 
to  their  needs.  The  fact  that  children  who  hear  but 
little  spoken  language  sometimes,  as  Horatio  Hale  has 
shown,  form  a  language  of  their  own,  is  evidence  of  this. 
Many  children  also  invent  new  words,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  they  continually  hear  a  fully  developed 
language. 

Since  any  means  by  which  the  mental  state  of  one 
being  is  expressed  to  another  is  a  language  in  the  broad 
meaning  of  the  term,  words  may  be  tactual,  motor,  or 
visual,  as  well  as  auditory ;  and  ideas  may  be  expressed 
in  the  permanent  form  of  some  constructed  object  or 
representation,  as  well  as  temporarily  by  sound,  touch, 
or  gesture.  Constructive  activities  of  all  kinds  are 
important  forms  of  expression ;  but  we  shall  take 
space  to  discuss  in  detail  only  the  forms  in  most  gen- 
eral use,  namely,  (I)  Oral  Language,  (H)  Written  Lan- 
guage, and  (III)  Drawings. 

I.   Auditory  Language 

FACTORS    CONCERNED    IN    ITS    ACQUISITION 

The  fundamental  factor  is,  of  course,  the  expressive 
instincty  and  this  is  founded  on  a  still  more  fundamental 
organic  tendency,  i.e,  the  tendency  to  respond  by  move- 
ment of  some  kind  to  every  stimulus  received.  In  the 
purely  expressive  form  of  reaction  the  movements  made 


THE   EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  223 

are  not  usually  valuable  in  themselves,  but  because  of 
the  movements  they  cause  others  to  make.  In  a  com- 
plex being  such  as  man,  so  many  stimuli  are  received  and 
noted  that  the  most  economical  form  of  response  is 
by  means  of  a  word  for  each  different  kind  of  stimulus, 
whether  object  as  "  tree,"  or  an  organic  state  as  "hunger." 
Writing  the  word  "tree"  is  simply  a  shorter  and  more 
convenient  means  of  indicating  the  object  than  would 
be  the  act  of  going  to  one  and  touching  it.  The  funda- 
mental basis  of  vocal  language  is  therefore  to  be  found 
in  the  tendency  to  respond  by  one  kind  of  movement  and 
sound  to  each  of  several  similar  stimuli.  The  modes  of 
response  that  will  fit  the  largest  number  of  cases  are 
selected  and  developed  into  the  words  of  an  artificial 
language ;  words,  therefore,  take  the  place  of  many 
other  forms  of  movement. 

The  next  most  important  factor,  in  producing  a  vocal 
language,  is  the  imitative  instinct.  This  leads  to  sounds 
and  gestures  being  responded  to  by  similar  sounds  and 
gestures.  These  naturally  arouse  corresponding  ideas 
in  other  persons,  and  are  therefore  often  repeated  and 
learned.  They  are  then  used  for  other  similar  stimuli,  and 
thus  they  become  words  and  a  means  of  classification  of 
objects.  The  use  of  "  tree  "  for  certain  kinds  of  objects, 
"flower  "  for  others,  and  "animal  "  for  others  causes  the 
common  characteristics  of  each  class  to  be  noted  more 
carefully,  and  the  general  notion  or  concept  of  it  is  thus 
perfected.  Other  symbols  are  used  to  indicate  sensa- 
tions and  qualities  as  well  as  objects  and  acts.  Often 
they  are  also  applied  to  analogous  and  associated  objects. 
Not  only  knives  are  "sharp,"  but  pains,  vinegar,  and 
wits.     "  Kitty  "  meant  to  M.  not  only  the  animal,  but 


224  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

anything  that  was  soft  to  the  touch,  and  finally  any- 
thing that  was  pleasing. 

In  the  case  of  a  child  surrounded  by  people  speaking 
a  vocal  language,  imitation  is  the  most  important  factor 
in  his  language  development.  The  child  has  continually 
before  him  examples  of  persons  responding  to  stimuli 
by  words  only,  and  the  imitative  instinct  leads  him  to 
respond  in  the  same  way.  He  is  much  more  likely  to 
imitate  a  response  than  an  original  stimulus,  though 
sometimes  the  child  who  has  not  been  taught  the  word 
"dog,"  for  example,  will  say  "bow-wow"  when  he  per- 
ceives or  pictures  the  animal ;  but  with  equal  opportunity 
to  hear  a  dog  bark  and  hear  the  word  "  dog,"  he  is  likely 
to  adopt  the  sound  used  by  others.  For  this  reason  each 
child,  no  matter  what  his  nationality,  learns  the  language 
he  hears  spoken.  Deaf  children  arc  usually  slow  in 
learning  visual  language  as  well  as  auditory ;  but  not 
so  much  because  hearing  is  necessary  to  language  learn- 
ing as  because  they  are  deprived  for  many  years  of  the 
chance  to  imitate  any  artificial  language. 

The  play  instinct  is  another  important  factor  in  lan- 
guage learning  by  children,  especially  at  first.  Before 
learning  to  talk,  and  sometimes  afterward,  children  fre- 
quently use  their  vocal  organs  as  playthings,  and  thus 
develop  their  vocal  centres  in  preparation  for  the  pro- 
duction of  any  sound  they  may  subsequently  have 
occasion  to  use.  Later,  children  often  combine  and 
substitute  words  in  various  ways,  as  a  matter  of 
amusement. 

Necessity,  which  really  means  action  for  one's  good, 
or  conformity  to  the  fundamental  individualistic  instinct, 
is  another  important  factor  in  the  individual  language 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  22$ 

development,  as  it  was  perhaps  the  chief  one  in  the 
development  of  language  by  the  race.  The  child  who 
learns  to  understand  words  of  warning  or  approval  suc- 
ceeds in  avoiding  various  painful  stimuli  and  in  secur- 
ing pleasant  ones.  Similar  results  come  from  ability 
to  indicate  hunger,  and  objects  of  fear  or  desire.  If  a 
child  is  helped  to  what  he  wants  in  response  to  the  lan- 
guage of  natural  signs,  he  is  often  slow  in  using  conven- 
tional language ;  hence,  it  is  sometimes  well  for  parents 
to  refuse  to  understand  the  wants  of  children  old 
enough  to  talk  until  they  try  to  express  them  in 
words. 

Another  more  obscure  but  very  important  factor  in 
acquiring  language  is  the  instinctive  social  tendency 
to  have  sympathy  and  approval.  This  is  also  really  a 
phase  of  the  expressive  instinct  itself.  Children  seem 
especially  desirous  that  others  shall  hear,  see,  and  feel 
what  they  do,  as  well  as  that  they  themselves  shall  have 
the  same  experiences  that  others  are  getting.  Lan- 
guage is  one  means  of  sharing  experiences,  hence  it 
is  used  a  great  deal  for  that  purpose.  Children  often 
repeat  over  and  over  a  statement  to  make  sure  it  is 
understood,  and  cease  only  when  they  receive  assurance 
by  word  or  act  that  they  have  been  understood.  Lan- 
guage is  the  chief  medium  by  which  the  wider  social  life 
is  brought  to  the  individual  soul,  and  by  which  he  infuses 
his  own  mental  states  into  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of 
the  group  to  which  he  belongs.  All  impulses  to  com- 
municate, whether  to  engage  in  the  most  trivial  gossip 
or  to  give  expression  to  the  profoundest  feelings  and 
thoughts,  are  the  result  of  the  social  tendency  to  share 
one's  experiences  with  others  of  his  kind. 

Q 


226        FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

STAGES  OF  LEARNING  ORAL  LANGUAGE 

Instinctive  Stage 

The  instinctive  language  which  man  has  in  common 
with  the  lower  animals  is  that  of  emotional  expression. 
He  beg^ins  life  with  a  cry^nd  often  ends  it  with  a  moan. 
This  language  of  natural  signs  is  not  learned  by  t^ 
individual,  but  is  instinctively  understood  and  spoken  by 
all  races. 

At  first  the  child  has  no  cry  except  for  pain,  and  little 
or  no  variation  in  its  cry  to  express  the  kinds  of  pain. 
Soon,  however,  the  cry  of  anger  or  the  wail  of  disap- 
pointment is  differentiated  from  the  cry  of  physical 
pain.  At  about  the  same  time,  or  a  little  later,  other 
cries,  screams,  gurglings,  and  cooings,  suggestive  of  en- 
ergy or  pleasurable  contentment,  are  made.  Differentia- 
tion in  vocal  expression  probably  proceeds  more  rapidly 
than  differentiation  of  the  different  forms  of  emotion, 
since  emotions  are  probably,  in  part  at  least,  the  result 
of  what  is  called  their  expression. 

Children  only  a  few  months  old  are  sensitive  to 
emotional  expression  of  others,  and  may  be  soothed, 
irritated,  or  depressed  by  appropriate  tones  of  voice. 
Vocal  laughter,  however,  is  sometimes  rather  late  in 
appearing  in  children  and  correspondingly  late  in  being 
understood.  M}^  own  little  girl  was  well  along  in  her 
second  year  before  she  laughed  aloud,  and  until  she 
herself  laughed,  was  disturbed  and  even  frightened  by 
the  sudden  laughter  of  others. 

Besides  the  purely  instinctive  language  of  emotional 
expression,  there   is   usually  developed  in  the  second 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  22/ 

year  a  more  intellectual  language,  which  prepares  the 
way  for  purely  symbolic  language.  The  child  learns  to 
vary  the  tone  of  his  grunts  and  squeals  so  as  to  express 
fear,  surprise,  question,  desire,  satisfaction,  and  assent, 
and  he  associates  gesture  with  these  variations  in 
tone.  Soon,  therefore,  he  can  express,  to  one  quick  to 
interpret,  nearly  all  his  feelings,  ideas,  and  wishes.  All 
through  life,  tone  of  voice,  emphasis,  inflection,  and 
gesture  continue  to  be  effective  aids  in  expression,  and 
important  means  of  interpretation,  especially  of  whatever 
concerns  the  emotions. 

Since  the  child's  life  is  more  emotional  than  intellec- 
tual, this  form  of  language  is  peculiarly  appropriate  in 
communicating  with  him.  After  he  begins  learning 
artificial  language,  the  instinctive  language  of  tone  and 
gesture  remains  an  important  means  of  communication, 
and  an  effective  aid  in  interpreting  what  is  heard.  A 
child  may  be  commended  in  tones  that  will  make  him 
cry,  or  condemned  in  accents  that  will  cause  him  to  smile 
with  pleasure. 

Playful  and  Imitative  Stage 

This  stage  of  language  learning  does  not  take  the 
place  of  the  preceding  stage,  but  is  added  to  it.  Be- 
ginning in  the  second  quarter  of  the  first  year,  it  is 
usually  prominent  for  from  one  to  several  years.  In 
the  second  and  third  quarters  of  the  first  year,  the  vocal 
orcrans  of  a  child  are  his  most  important  playthings. 
During  this  period  of  babbling  a  child  may  make  nearly 
every  sound  in  the  language. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  his  first  year,  babbling  often 
gives  place  to  imitation,  and  instead  of  repeating  chance 


228  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

sounds  over  and  over,  the  child  reproduces  nearly 
every  sound  that  he  hears.  Sometimes  this  is  done 
almost  automatically  and  with  phonographic  exactness. 
In  other  instances  the  imitations  seem  to  be  more  vol- 
untary from  the  first,  since  the  child  keeps  trying  to 
utter  a  word,  with  varying  success,  until  he  gets  tired 
or  succeeds  in  speaking  it  satisfactorily  to  himself. 

Sometimes  this  imitative  stage  is  almost,  if  not  en- 
tirely, omitted,  as  was  the  case  with  M.  The  "da  da," 
or  purely  playful  use  of  language,  was  very  inconspicu- 
ous in  another  of  my  children.  One  or  more  phases  of 
language  learning  are  therefore  sometimes  omitted  en- 
tirely or  subordinated  to  others. 

Quite  frequently  the  child  imitates  tone,  inflection, 
and  rhythm  before  attempting  to  articulate  separate 
words.  Sometimes  so  perfectly  is  this  done  that  a 
person  in  another  room  is  led  to  believe  that  a  con- 
versation is  being  carried  on.  Evidently  in  such  cases, 
tone  and  rhythm  are  most  impressive  to  the  child,  and 
the  motor  adjustments  for  their  imitation  most  easily 
made. 

Word-learning  Stage 

As  soon  as  a  child  begins  to  utter  sounds  for  some 
other  purpose  than  the  mere  making  of  them,  the  stage 
of  word  learning  proper  is  introduced.  Frequently  the 
playful  and  imitative  utterance  of  words  is  intermingled 
with  their  use  for  a  purpose,  in  a  way  that  is  rather 
puzzling  to  adults.  This  word-learning  stage  may  begin 
in  the  first  year,  but  is  not  usually  very  marked  till  the 
last  half  of  the  second  year. 

Usually,  children  understand  words  before  they  speak 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  229 

them  ;  but  in  cases  where  the  imitative  stage  is  marked, 
many  words  are  uttered  before  their  meaning  is  known. 
The  meaning  of  words  applied  to  objects  and  acts  is 
learned  by  hearing  them  in  connection  with  the  percep- 
tion of  object  or  act;  yet  even  these  words  are  under- 
stood not  so  much  by  their  sound  as  by  means  of  the 
circumstances  and  the  gesture  or  glance  of  the  eye  that 
accompany  the  utterance  of  the  word.  It  is  therefore 
difficult,  before  a  child  begins  to  talk,  to  tell  what  words 
he  really  knows.  He  is  often  greatly  puzzled  by  a  familiar 
word  uttered  without  the  usual  suggestive  conditions,  or, 
if  they  are  present,  some  other  word  may  have  the  same 
effect  as  the  right  one.  A  child,  who  had  often  been 
told  to  "  lie  down  "  when  she  sat  up  after  being  put  to 
bed,  would  lie  down  if  the  words  "  sit  up "  were  sub- 
stituted, but  uttered  in  the  usual  tone  of  voice  and 
with  the  usual  glance. 

The  child  is  always  liable  to  associate  a  word  with 
a  different  characteristic  from  the  one  intended.  To 
one  little  girl,  "chair"  meant  not  so  much  the  article 
of  furniture  as  the  act  of  sitting,  and  to  another, 
"quack"  meant  not  only  a  duck,  but  the  water  in 
which  it  was  seen. 

Pronunciation  of  words  which  require  very  accurate 
adjustment  of  muscles  is  a  difficult  task  in  the  early 
stages  of  word  learning.  The  power  to  understand 
words  is  usually  more  quickly  gained  than  the  power 
to  control  the  vocal  apparatus.  Some  children  do  not 
try  to  use  words  difficult  of  pronunciation  till  long  after 
the  meaning  is  perfectly  familiar  to  them.  Thus  M. 
refrained  from  using  "  grandma  "  for  about  a  year  after 
she  knew  the  word.     Most  children,  however,  are  not 


230  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

often  deterred  from  trying  to  use  words  by  inability  to 
pronounce  them  correctly. 

The  question  of  pronunciation  is  simply  one  form 
of  the  general  problem  of  how  voluntary  motions  are 
acquired.  Some  sounds,  and  especially  some  combi- 
nations of  sounds,  are  difficult  of  utterance  for  adults 
as  well  as  for  children ;  hence  it  is  not  easy  to  separate 
the  childish  difficulties  from  other  difficulties  of  the 
language.  A  study  of  the  first  sound  of  all  the  words 
used  by  children  will  show  that  words  beginning  with 
certain  sounds,  such  as  ///,  r,  are  not  so  well  repre- 
sented as  those  beginning  with  other  sounds,  such  as  / 
and  b.  This  may  be  interpreted  as  showing  that  words 
beginning  with  difficult  sounds  are  avoided.  To  mean 
anything,  however,  the  prominence  of  those  sounds  in 
adult  language  must  be  considered.  A  study  of  the 
sounds  mispronounced,  especially  of  those  at  the  be- 
ginning of  words,  and  of  sounds  substituted  for  those 
presumably  more  difficult  of  pronunciation,  therefore, 
may  be  more  significant.  The  difficulties,  however,  of 
getting  accurate  records  of  children's  pronunciations 
(many  of  which  are  intermediate  between  sounds  recog- 
nized as  elementary  by  adults)  are  so  great  that  one  does 
not  feel  sure  of  the  data.  The  errors  and  substitutions 
change  also  with  age,  and  vary  greatly  with  individuals. 
Presumably  there  is  some  law  of  variation  with  age 
corresponding  to  the  natural  order  in  which  the  centres 
controlling  the  vocal  apparatus  develop,  though  the 
course  of  development  must  be  greatly  modified  by  indi- 
vidual training  and  experience.  Common  observation 
indicates  that  this  order  is  from  large,  comparatively 
free,  to  finer  and  more  definitely  controlled  movements 


THE   EXPRESSIVE   INSTINCT  23 1 

involving  accurate  coordination  of  the  several  parts  of 
the  vocal  apparatus.  The  fact  that  sounds  are  difficult 
not  merely  in  themselves,  but  according  to  the  sounds 
with  which  they  are  associated,  makes  the  question  of 
the  natural  order  of  development  an  exceedingly  com- 
plex one. 

Habit  and  the  relation  of  one  centre  to  another  also 
modify  the  natural  order,  if  there  be  one,  to  such  an 
extent  that  its  determination  is  very  difficult.  As  soon 
as  a  new  word  is  learned  there  is  a  tendency  to  assimi- 
late other  words  to  it ;  hence  the  pronunciation  of  any 
word  is  likely  to  be  modified  by  some  other  word  that 
has  recently  been  learned  or  often  pronounced.  Thus 
Mrs.  Moore's  boy,  who  used  "  ama  "  for  "  grandma,"  used 
"appa"for  "papa,"  and  after  learning  "baba"for  "baby," 
changed  to  *'pa  ba,"  and  after  using  "be  be"  for  "  baby," 
to  "pape,"  and  then  finally  to  "papa." 

Again,  pronunciation  is  a  matter  of  auditory  percep- 
tion and  memory,  as  well  as  of  motor  development.  As 
a  consequence,  words  are  often  mispronounced  because 
the  child  does  not  discriminate  sounds  accurately,  and 
still  more  often,  because  he  discriminates  sounds  just  as 
they  are  pronounced  by  adults,  instead  of  as  they  should 
be.  Most  adults  slur  certain  sounds,  and  the  child 
naturally  reproduces  only  the  accentuated  portion  of 
the  words  he  hears,  or  fills  out  the  word  with  sounds 
already  familiar  to  him.  For  example,  a  child  who  had 
been  singing  a  familiar  hymn  suddenly  stopped,  and 
said,  "What  is  a  consecrated  cross-eyed  bear,  anyway  ^  " 
The  first  or  last  or  most  impressive  syllable  only  of  a 
long  word  is  often  used  because  it  is  most  noticed  and 
best  remembered 


232  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

The  rate  at  which  children  overcome  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  learning  to  understand  and  pronounce 
words  becomes  more,  rather  than  less,  marvellous  as  it 
is  studied.  Records  of  children's  vocabularies,  which 
have  multiplied  greatly  within  the  last  few  years,  show 
that  children  of  two  or  three  years  actually  use  more 
words  than  adults  were  formerly  supposed  to  use. 
From  thirty  to  a  hundred  new  words  a  month  is  not 
an  unusual  rate  (of  learning)  after  the  acquisition  of 
language  fairly  begins. 

Children  rarely  learn  to  walk  and  to  talk  at  the  same 
time.  When,  as  is  usual,  walking  precedes  talking,  the 
language-learning  stage  is  not  generally  marked  till  the 
last  half  of  the  second  year.  At  two  years  of  age  a 
child's  vocabulary  may  not  exceed  a  score  of  words ; 
but  is  likely  to  number  from  two  to  four  hundred,  and 
may  reach  the  surprising  figure  of  ten  or  fifteen  hun- 
dred. The  rate  of  acquiring  words  between  two  and 
four  years  of  age  varies  with  the  degree  of  interest  in 
learning  as  compared  with  interest  in  combining  words 
already  known,  and  with  the  waxing  and  waning  of 
interest  in  other  forms  of  motor  activity,  such  as  walk- 
ing or  building  with  blocks.  The  child's  vocabulary 
may  therefore  increase  very  rapidly  for  a  month  or  two ; 
then  remain  almost  the  same  for  a  time,  while  facility  in 
the  use  of  the  new  words  is  gained,  or  while  interest  is 
temporarily  occupied  with  objects  and  acts,  rather  than 
their  names  and  descriptions. 

As  to  the  kind  of  words  most  learned  by  children, 
close  study  shows  that  the  supposition  that  nouns  espe- 
cially appeal  to  children,  is  wholly  wrong.  At  two  years 
of  age  the  proportion  of  nouns  in  children's  vocabularies 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  233 

is  about  the  same  as  in  the  language,  viz.  60  per  cent ; 
but  the  proportion  of  verbs  is  about  20  per  cent,  or 
nearly  twice  what  it  is  in  the  language.  Adverbs  are 
also  relatively  more  numerous  than  adjectives.  These 
facts  harmonize  with  other  studies,  showing  that  chil- 
dren are  more  interested  in  actions  than  in  things. 
Adjectives  and  verbs  are  often  learned  first,  yet  nouns 
seem  to  predominate  during  the  first  months  of  speaking, 
when  the  per  cent  may  be  70  or  80.  In  reality,  however, 
the  noun  idea  is  not  so  prominent  as  this,  for  words  that 
in  adult  language  are  nouns  are  to  the  child  verbs,  or 
else  the  distinction  is  not  yet  made.  For  instance,  M. 
used  "  bed  "  in  the  sense  of  lie  down,  just  as  we  use  "  dress" 
to  mean  the  act  as  well  as  the  object.  Prepositions  also 
are  at  first  for  the  child  nearly  always  verbs,  "  up  "  or 
"  down  "  signifying  the  act  rather  than  the  position. 

Sentence-making  Stage 

Groups  of  words,  eg.  ''da  'tis"  (there  it  is),  are 
sometimes  learned  before  single  words ;  but  words 
learned  separately  are  rarely  combined  until  they  have 
been  used  separately  for  some  time.  The  stage  of 
word  learning  gradually  merges  into  the  stage  of  word 
combining,  and  a  close  observer  will  usually  discover 
that  a  time  comes  when  a  child  is  more  concerned  with 
the  combination  of  familiar  words  than  with  the  learn- 
ing of  new  words.  This  stage  is  apt  to  become  promi- 
nent in  the  third  or  fourth  year. 

The  single  words  that  a  child  uses  are,  in  a  way, 
sentences,  especially  when  expression  is  helped  out  by 
tone  inflection  and  gesture,  e.g.  ''papa"  means  "Papa 


234  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

has  come,"  "  I  want  my  papa,"  **  That  is  papa,"  "  Papa 
will  do  it,"  *'  I  will  give  it  to  papa,"  etc. 

An  exact  report  of  what  a  child  just  beginning  to 
combine  words  says,  is  surprisingly  unintelligible  to 
one  knowing  nothing  of  the  child,  or,  the  circumstances 
and  tone  of  voice  accompanying  the  words.  Only  that 
portion  of  a  thought  that  is  accentuated  or  seems  to 
need  statement  is  expressed  in  words  —  all  the  rest  is 
understood  from  the  circumstances  or  expressed  in  some 
other  way,  e.g.  ** Little  story"  means  "Tell  me  a  little 
story." 

Progress  in  sentence  making  is  the  result  of  three 
processes:  (i)  the  substitution  of  words  for  what  is 
understood  or  indicated  by  tone  or  gesture  ;  (2)  analysis 
of  situations  into  separate  elements  which  then  are 
expressed  by  words ;  (3)  increase  of  mental  grasp  so 
that  the  relation  of  different  elements  to  each  other  is 
held  in  mind,  and  words  selected  and  arranged  to  ex- 
press that  relation. 

The  shifting  of  interest  and  attention  from  the  thing 
to  the  actor  or  the  action  evidently  calls  attention  to 
the  elements  of  a  situation  and  leads  to  the  attempt 
to  express  the  various  elements  and  their  relation. 
Adverbs,  adjectives,  and  prepositions  are  the  result 
of  attempts  to  express  the  less  important  phases  of 
thought  and  their  relations,  e.g.  "Get  bed  papa"  be- 
comes later  "I  want  to  get  in  bed  with  papa." 

Soon  more  complex  relations  are  expressed  by  the 
introduction  of  conjunctions  and  relatives  so  as  to  con- 
nect clauses  into  complex  sentences,  e.g.  "  I  will  go  and 
see  if  papa  is  there." 

The  arrangement  of  words  is  determined  largely  by 


THE   EXPRESSIVE   INSTINCT  235 

imitation,  but  is  also  influenced  by  shifting  of  interest 
and  attention.  Thus,  a  little  girl  said,  "Eat,  papa 
apple,"  then  a  moment  later  when  apple  (as  contrasted 
with  pear)  was  most  prominent  in  her  mind,  she  said, 
''Apple,  papa  eat,"  while  at  another  time,  when  the 
person  was  most  thought  of,  she  said,  "  Papa,  eat  apple." 

Records  of  all  sentences  used  by  a  child  between  two 
and  four,  during  an  hour  or  more,  taken  at  regular  inter- 
vals, show  a  marked  increase  in  completeness,  length, 
and  complexity  of  sentences,  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
extract  from  such  a  record  and  the  table  on  page  236. 

Twenty-eighth  month.  "More  pencil"  (I  want  the 
other  pencil) ;  "  Little  story  "  (Tell  me  a  little  story) ; 
"  That  all }  "  (Is  that  all }) ;  "  New  cuff }  "  (Is  that  a  new 
cuff.-*)  "  Cracker  want  "  (I  want  a  cracker). 

Thirty-fourth  month.  "  Know  where  is  my  papa  }  "  ; 
"  I  want  kiss  baby  "  ;  "  No  want  to  be  dressed  "  ;  "I 
don't  want  to  be  dressed" ;  "Got  some  little  birds  on" 
(said  of  a  screen). 

Fortieth  month.  "  Baby  want  to  get  down  run  round 
a  little  while  "  ;  "I  run  back  and  forth  "  ;  "  No,  I  don't 
want  to  run  out  in  the  hall "  ;  "  Baby  do  like  to  have  me 
run  in  here,  baby  do  "  ;  "  He  want  me  to  run  here." 

Forty-sixth  montJi.  "  This  is  a  nice  little  kitty "  ; 
"Don't  you  want  to  go  down  there  and  pat  him.!*"; 
"Why  don't  you,  he  is  nice  and  soft.^"  ;  "He  is  afraid 
sometimes "  ;  "I  tried  to  catch  him  and  give  him  to 
you  to  pat  him." 

Contrary  to  all  rules  of  grammar,  most  of  the  child's 
first  sentences  have  no  subject,  many  are  without  an 
assertive  verb,  while  only  a  few  are  without  an  ob- 
ject.     The   length  of   sentence   is   doubled   in   a  few 


236  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD    STUDY 

TABLE   OF   SENTENCES   AND   WORDS   USED   BY   "  M. 


Date 

Age 

Sentences 

Compound  Sentences    . 
Complex  Sentences  .... 
Compound  and  Complex  Sen- 
tences  

Clauses 

Compound  Subjects 
Compound  Predicates    . 
Compound  Objects  or  Modifiers 
Prepositional  Phrases     . 
Infinitive  Phrases     .... 
Assertive  Sentences .... 
Question  Sentences .... 
Command  or  Wish  .      .      .      . 
Incomplete  Sentences    . 
Subject  Omitted        .... 
Assertive  Verb  Omitted 
Ooject  of  Verb  or  Preposition    . 

Words 

Nouns 

Pronouns     

Verbs 

Adverbs 

Adjectives 

Prepositions       .      ,      ,      .      . 

Conjunctions 

Interjections 

DifTerent  Words      .      .      .      . 

Nouns 

Pronouns      

Verbs 

Adverbs 

Adjectives 

Prepositions 

Conjunctions 

Interjections 


Nov.  II,  1898 
28  months 


May  13,  1899 
34  months 


May  13,  1900 
46  months 


No. 


100 
3 


o 

lOI 


O 
O 

o 

2    (8) 
2 


42 
20 

37 
96 
81 
67 
4 
235 
91 
12 

S3 
20 
46 

9 
o 

4 

107 

SO 

4 

24 

7 

17 

2 

I 

2 


% 


No. 


100 

3 

o 

o 

lOI 

o 
o 
o 

2 
2 

42 
20 

37 
96 
81 
67 

4 
100 
38.7 

S-i 
22.5 

8.S 
19-5 
3.8 
o 


S74 
46.7 

3-7 
22.4 

6.5 
15.8 


100 

S 
II 

I 

117 

o 

I 

I 

151  (II) 
17(2) 

4S 

14 

37 

62 

38 

44 

5 

405 

73 

113 

137 

32 

24 

23 

I 

o 

130 

44 

IS 

41 

10 

12 

8 

o 

o 


% 


117 
o 

I 


15 
17 

45 

14 

37 

62 

38 

44 

S 

100 

18 

27.8 

33-6 
7.8 
S.9 
5.6 
0.2 
o 

32.1 

33-8 

ii.S 

33.5 
I'l 
9.2 
6.1 
o 
o 


No. 

100 
29 
14 

6 

156 

o 

3 

7 

29 

26 

50 
28 


23 
9 

14 
o 

700 

108 

186 

217 

94 

49 

27 

19 

5 

180 

43 
18 

65 

23 

16 

6 

7 
2 


*  Additional  phrases  partly  expressed. 


THE   EXPRESSIVE   INSTINCT  237 

months,  and  complex  and  compound  sentences  appear 
and  increase  in  number,  showing  the  rapid  increase  in 
mental  grasp  or  span  of  consciousness. 

In  changing  words  to  indicate  person  and  number, 
and  in  arranging  words  in  the  right  order,  children  often 
make  mistakes,  but  the  irregularity  of  the  language  in 
forming  plural  or  tense  forms  is  usually  the  cause. 
Without  conscious  generalization,  children  are  marvel- 
lously quick  in  applying  a  common  form  of  ending  or 
law  of  language  to  new  words,  e.g.  ''tooken,"  '*  eated," 
"mans."  A  similar  influence  often  leads  children  to 
make  new  forms  of  words  according  to  the  genius  of  the 
language.  Thus  M.,  who  had  been  rolling  a  hoop,  said 
she  had  been  "hooping," and  at  another  time  spoke  of 
her  shoe  as  "  worning  "  out. 

.    II.    Visual  Language 

The  factors  leading  to  the  understanding  and  use  of 
visual  language  are  only  partially  the  same  as  for  oral 
language.  Visual  language,  as  we  have  it,  is  at  best 
purely  conventional,  and  hence  it  is  not  directly  based 
on  or  associated  with  a  natural  and  instinctive  form  of 
expression,  as  is  oral  language.  The  imitative  ten- 
dency is  appealed  to  less  frequently  and  less  impres- 
sively by  visual  than  by  oral  symbols.  Necessity,  or  the 
gaining  of  desirable  ends  by  understanding  and  using 
visual  language,  is  a  much  less  important  factor  in  learn- 
ing to  read  and  write  than  in  learning  to  talk,  because 
the  child  already  has  an  adequate  and  easier  means  of 
communication  in  his  oral  language  than  he  had  in  the 
language  of  natural  signs  when  learning  the  oral.  It  is 
also  much  more  difficult  to  make  the  understanding  and 


238  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

use  of  visual  language  as  necessary  to  the  gratifica- 
tion of  the  daily  desires  of  the  child  than  in  the  case  of 
oral  language.  Questions,  answers,  commands,  and  re- 
marks might,  however,  be  expressed  in  visual  language 
a  great  deal  more  than  they  are  in  the  primary  schools. 

In  the  early  stage  of  learning  to  read  and  write,  the 
only  instincts  that  can  be  appealed  to  with  as  great 
effectiveness  as  in  oral  language  are  the  play  instinct 
and  the  social  desire  for  approbation.  Hence,  although 
much  pedagogical  skill  is  now  expended  in  arranging 
words  so  as  to  show  their  likeness  and  difference,  and 
lead  to  their  analysis  and  classification,  the  progress  in 
learning  visual  language  is,  for  some  time,  slower  than 
in  the  early  stage  of  oral  language  learning  without  any 
formal  teaching  whatever.  Children  would  probably 
progress  much  faster  if  oral  language  were  associated 
with  visual,  in  much  the  same  way  that  oral  language  is 
at  first  supplemented  by  the  instinctive  language  of  natu- 
ral signs.  For  example,  a  teacher  may  write  only  the 
most  important  words  of  a  sentence  and  speak  the 
others,  or  in  the  earlier  attempts  at  writing  children  may 
be  allowed  to  speak  some  of  the  difficult  words  in  every 
sentence  that  they  write. 

After  children  have  gained  the  power  to  read  with 
some  facility,  the  instinct  of  curiosity  and  the  desire  to 
know  about  the  world  and  its  people,  and  to  share  the 
thoughts  of  mankind  as  expressed  in  books,  are  the  im- 
portant factors  in  language  learning.  A  sort  of  read- 
ing craze  often  sets  in  at  this  time,  which  results  in  an 
enormous  addition  to  the  youth's  vocabulary  (probably 
a  thousand  words  a  year  would  be  a  low  estimate,  since, 
according  to  my  investigations,  high  school  graduates 


THE   EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  239 

usually  know  the  meaning  of  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
words).  The  reading  also  exercises  a  great  influence  on 
the  language  habits.  Sometimes  even  oral  language  is 
thus  rendered  ''bookish." 

The  impulse  to  express  to  individuals  or  to  humanity 
his  own  ideas  and  feelings  in  poem,  story,  article,  or 
book,  often  becomes  strong  in  the  early  teens.  If  teach- 
ers could  skilfully  use  this  impulse  instead  of  ignoring 
or  checking  it,  enormous  advances  would  be  made  in 
teaching  language  as  a  means  of  expression. 

Interest  in  language  as  such,  aside  from  ideas  to  be  ex- 
pressed, is  often  first  manifested  in  a  marked  degree  (not 
counting  the  early  period  of  imitative  play)  in  a  playful 
form  of  learning  to  use  and  construct  secret  languages. 
This  tendency  reaches  its  climax  at  about  thirteen. 
Probably,  therefore,  this  is  the  age  for  learning  foreign 
languages.  Interest  in  the  study  of  language  as  a  form 
of  art  or  as  a  science,  such  as  is  required  in  literary  appre- 
ciation and  the  study  of  grammar,  cannot  be  greatly 
developed  until  the  language  is  learned,  and  as  a  rule 
only  after  some  of  the  higher  forms  of  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation and  of  abstract  thought  of  the  early  teens  have 
been  reached.  Up  to  this  time,  children  are  interested 
in  language  only  as  a  means  of  expressing  thought,  and 
the  correctness  of  their  language  is  almost  wholly  the 
result  of  imitation  and  habit. 

After  language  is  learned,  rather  than  before,  is  the 
time  for  studying  its  structure  and  appreciating  its 
beauty.  Grammar  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  means  of 
speaking  correctly,  but  as  a  scientific  analysis  and  classi- 
fication of  means  of  expression  that  are  already  familiar. 
In  this,  as  in  other  cases,  the  natural  order  for  the  race 


240  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

and  for  the  individual  is  to  learn  how  to  do  a  thing,  then 
to  admire  grace  in  doing  it,  or  enjoy  the  scientific  study 
of  how  it  is  done. 

III.    Drawing 

Drawing  may  be  considered  as  an  art  based  on  the 
constructive  and  aesthetic  instincts,  but  in  its  earlier 
stages,  at  any  rate,  it  is  to  a  considerable  extent  really 
a  language  based  on  the  expressive  instinct. 

There  is  no  purely  instinctive  stage  of  drawing  as 
there  is  of  oral  language,  but  there  is  a  very  well-marked 
playful  and  imitative  stage.  Children  delight  in  making 
marks  just  as  they  delight  in  making  sounds,  so  the 
scribble  stage  corresponds  exactly  to  the  *'da  da"  stage 
of  oral  language.  The  sight  of  some  one  using  a  pencil 
is  likely  to  set  a  child  to  scribbling,  just  as  the  talk  of 
others  often  sets  the  young  child  to  babbling.  In  neither 
case  is  there  at  first  any  real  imitation  of  distinct  move- 
ments. A  little  later  crude  attempts  at  imitating  the 
movements  of  others  are  made,  but  with  much  less  per- 
sistency and  success  than  in  the  case  of  sounds.  Evi- 
dently the  natural  relation  .of  eye  perceptions  to  hand 
movements  is  much  less  perfect  than  between  ear 
perceptions  and  vocal  movements. 

In  the  next  stage,  corresponding  to  the  word-learning 
stage  of  oral  language,  drawings  are  made  by  the  child 
not  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  making  movements  and 
the  joy  of  imitating,  but  in  order  to  express  ideas  of 
objects  and  events.  Any  dot  or  line  or  combination 
of  them  that  suggests  to  the  child  the  appearance  of 
any  object  is  at  first  a  perfectly  satisfactory  picture 
of  it.     Often  a  ''picture"  is  named  or  renamed  after  it 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  24 1 

is  made,  because  something  is  suggested  by  the  lines 
or  dots.  What  to  the  child  is  most  essential,  whether 
visible  or  not,  is  indicated,  and  the  rest  unnoticed  or 
filled  out  in  the  mind.  The  stomach  of  a  man  may 
be  represented  when  neither  the  rest  of  the  trunk  nor 
the  arms  are  shown.  At  first  the  different  parts  of  a 
man  may  be  scattered  over  the  paper,  a  dot  or  curve 
being  pointed  out  or  made  as  each  part  —  eye,  mouth, 
head,  etc.  —  is  named. 

A  little  later  much  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  posi- 
tion of  one  part  in  relation  to  the  others,  and  still  later, 
to  the  relative  size  of  parts.  This  evidently  corresponds 
to  the  word-combining  or  sentence-making  stage  of  lan- 
guage expression.  The  child  not  only  tries  to  make 
something  that  will  suggest  the  idea  he  wishes  to 
express,  but  aims  to  represent  objects;  just  as  in  lan- 
guage, his  sentences  become  not  merely  suggestive  of 
ideas,  but  complete  expressions  of  them. 

At  the  time  when  the  child's  drawings  are  partly 
symbolic  and  partly  representative,  they  are  often  very 
free  and  unconstrained  expressions  of  his  ideas.  His 
make-believe  tendency  helps  him  to  see  in  his  drawings 
all  that  he  meant  by  them.  He  has  little  feeling  of  their 
inadequacy,  and  is  ready  to  make  almost  anything,  and  to 
tell  almost  any  story  with  his  graphic  art  by  which  both 
outside  and  inside  of  houses  are  shown,  wind  or  heat 
indicated,  successive  events  pictured,  and  the  important 
parts  shown  by  increased  size.  During  this  period  the 
child  draws  from  what  is  in  his  mind  rather  than  from 
what  he  perceives,  hence  his  picture  of  a  man  or  table 
is  generic  rather  than  individual,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact   that   placing  a  model  before   him  produces  little 


242  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

or  no  modification  of  the  conventional  design  he  has 
adopted. 

Sooner  or  later,  perhaps  most  frequently  at  about 
nine  years  of  age,  the  child  begins  to  feel  the  inadequacy 
of  his  representations.  He  can  no  longer  believe  that 
his  drawings  really  look  like  what  he  wishes  to  repre- 
sent ;  hence  he  is  not  so  ready  to  try  to  draw  everything. 
This  is  the  time  when  he  needs  encouragement,  and 
before  long  some  instruction  as  to  how  he  may  show 
perspective  and  represent  objects  as  they  look  instead 
of  as  they  are.  The  difficulties  of  doing  this  are  so 
great,  especially  when  the  process  is  not  associated  with 
the  desire  to  express  something,  that  only  a  few  ever 
regain  their  former  freedom  of  graphic  expression. 
Drawing  becomes  for  most  children,  therefore,  an  exer- 
cise in  mechanical  imitation  and  representation  instead 
of  a  favorite  means  of  expression.  If  drawing  were 
taught  in  these  early  stages  as  a  mode  of  telling  what 
has  been  observed,  rather  than  as  an  art,  the  results 
would  be  far  better. 

A  little  earlier  than  the  time  at  which  language 
acquires  a  scientific  and  aesthetic  interest,  drawing  ac- 
quires similar  interest,  and  great  delight  may  be  taken 
either  in  mechanical  drawings  or  in  the  making  of  beau- 
tiful drawings  or  pictures.  All  along  there  has  been 
some  aesthetic  interest  in  colors,  but  now  this  interest 
is  deepened  and  refined,  and  the  appreciation  of  beauty 
of  form  develops.  This  is  the  time  for  artistic  and 
mechanical  drawing  and  for  the  study  of  the  subject  as 
a  science  or  as  a  fine  art,  though  drawing  as  a  con- 
venient means  of  expressing  ideas  gained  in  nearly  all 
subjects  studied  should  not  be  neglected. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  INSTINCT  243 


Exercises  for  Students 


1.  Describe  means  of  expression  employed  by  animals,  and 
show  that  they  are  useful. 

2.  Describe  any  modes  of  expression  that  you  have  noticed 
infants  use. 

3.  What  kind  of  words  do  the  blind  learn  ?  The  deaf  ?  Those 
who  are  both  blind  and  deaf  ? 

4.  Have  you  ever  had  the  impulse  to  express  yourself  in  other 
ways  than  by  language,  such  as  painting  or  modelling  ? 

5.  Give  evidence  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  respond  to  every 
stimulus  by  a  movement,  and  for  every  idea  to  be  expressed  in 
movement.  Illustrate  how  words  may  be  used  in  place  of  other 
movements.     Look  up  the  root  meanings  of  several  words. 

6.  Is  the  growing  custom  of  beginning  to  teach  deaf  children  at 
an  early  age  a  good  one  ?  Why  ?  If  a  deaf  and  a  hearing  child 
enter  school  at  five,  which  should  be  farther  along  in  language,  the 
deaf  child  at  twelve  or  the  hearing  child  at  nine  ?     Why  ? 

7.  Can  you  express  feeling  by  writing  as  perfectly  as  by  talking  ? 
Why  ?  Are  children  under  ten  affected  as  much  by  stories  told  as 
by  stories  they  read  ?     Why  ? 

8.  Report  any  instances  you  have  observed  of  playful  or  imita- 
tive use  of  words  by  young  children. 

9.  Report  any  observations  you  have  made  of  the  serious  efforts 
of  children  to  learn  words. 

10.  Illustrate  how  necessity  leads  a  child  to  learn  to  understand 
and  use  language. 

1 1 .  State  facts  showing  the  prominence  of  one  or  another  of  the 
stages  of  language  learning  of  a  child  you  know. 

12.  Report  just  as  many  examples  of  childish  mispronunciation 
as  possible,  and  state  the  cause  if  you  can.  Compare  tables  of 
Lukens  and  Tracy. 

13.  Record  and  report  vocabularies  of  children  of  about  two  years 
if  possible,  noting  pronunciation  and  meaning  and  parts  of  speech 
of  all  words.     Compare  with  Tracy,  Moore,  Gale,  et  al. 

14.  Record  everything  said  by  a  child  of  two  or  three  during  an 
hour  or  two,  and  studv  to  discover  omissions  and  other  peculiarities. 


244  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

15.  Report  instances  of  children  extending  the  rules  for  forming 
endings  or  in  making  new  forms  of  words. 

16.  Report  what  you  have  done  or  observed  regarding  secret  lan- 
guages. Could  not  the  playful  tendency  to  make  a  language  be 
utilized  in  the  study  of  visual  language  more  than  it  is  ? 

17.  Illustrate  how  the  same  kind  of  necessity  that  leads  a  child  to 
learn  oral  language  may  be  used  in  learning  visual  language.  Illus- 
trate in  detail  how  oral  language  may  be  used  to  supplement  visual, 
e.g.  the  teacher  says  part  of  a  sentence  and  writes  the  rest. 

18.  Estimate  your  own  vocabulary  by  counting  all  the  words  you 
know  on  every  tenth,  fiftieth,  or  hundredth  page  of  the  dictionary. 

19.  Let  some  one  pose  for  children  of  the  kindergarten  or  first 
grade  while  they  draw.  Examine  the  drawings.  Bring  in  speci- 
mens of  drawings  of  children  not  yet  in  school.  Compare  Barnes, 
Sully,  Lukens,  and  Brown. 

20.  Have  children  of  several  grades  illustrate  a  story,  and  make 
a  study  of  the  drawings. 

21 .  Should  drawing  be  taught  children  as  an  art  or  as  a  means  of 
expression  before  ten  years  of  age  ?    Why  ? 


Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  expression  and  language,  consult  Romanes, 
Mental  Evolution  in  Man.,  chaps,  v  to  ix ;  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
221-262,  and  Vol.  II,  pp.  126-139;  Whitney,  Life  and  Growth 
of  Language ;  Robinson,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LIII,  pp.  784-798  ; 
Hale,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  XXX,  pp.  712-713  ;  Science,  Vol.  XII, 
p.  145- 

On  the  development  of  speech  and  vocabularies,  see  Lukens,  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  424-460 ;  Tracy,  chap,  v,  also  in  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  107-138;  Sully,  chap,  v;  Preyer,  Part  II; 
Moore,  Part  IV  ;  Taine,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  p.  129 ;  Noble, 
Educ,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  44-52,  117-121,  188-194;  Chamberlain, 
chap,  v  ;  Compayre,  Vol.  II,  chap,  iii ;  Gale,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  IX, 
pp.  422-435  ;  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  45-51?  or  in  Univ. 
of  Minn.  Psychological  Studies ;  Sanford,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
257-259  ;  W.  S.  Hall,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  585-608  ;  Jr.  Ch. 
and  Ad.,  January,   1902,  pp.    1-13;  Kirkpatrick,  Science,  Vol. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE   INSTINCT  245 

XVIII,  pp.  107-108,  175-176;  Wolfe,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
144-150;  Jegi,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  241-261. 

On  language  teaching,  see  Groszman,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  266- 
278 ;  Hinsdale,  Teachitig  the  Language  Arts ;  Jacobi,  in  Psycho- 
logical Notes  on  Primary  Education,  pp.  62-120  ;  Iredell,  Educ.y 
Vol.  XIX,  pp.  233-238.  See  also  Williams,  "Children's 
Interest  in  Words,""  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  274-295  ;  Han- 
cock, "Children's  Tendencies  in  Written  Language,"  N.  W. 
Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  646-649;  and  Judd,  chap,  viii,  on  the 
process  of  reading,  and  chap,  vii,  on  writing. 

On  development  of  interest  and  ability  in  drawing,  see  Shinn; 
Brown,  Univ.  of  Cal.  Studies,  1897,  pp.  75;  Barnes,  Studies, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  283-294,  Vol.  II,  pp.  75-77,  163-179  (also  a  child's 
drawings  in  every  number)  ;  Sully,  chap,  x  ;  Lukens,  Ped.  Sent., 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  79-110:  Chamberlain,  pp.  190-21 1  ;  Hart,  N.  W. 
Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  193-196;  Clarke,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XIII,  pp. 
76-82  ;  O'Shea,  JV.  E.  A.,  1894,  pp.  loi  5-1023  ;  Gallagher, 
N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  130-134;  Scott,  Trans.  III.  Ch.  S. 
Soc,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  12  ;  F.  Burk,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  296-323  ; 
Fitz,  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  Vol.  LI,  pp.  648-662. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   INTELLECT 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  child  begins  life  with 
little  or  no  conscious  intelligence,  yet  with  well-marked 
reflex  and  instinctive  tendencies  to  act  for  its  own  good. 
This  unconscious  mechanical  intelligence  controls  the 
infant's  action  and  enables  it  to  survive.  It  also  deter- 
mines the  general  characteristics  of  conscious  intelli- 
gence, for  it  determines  the  kind  and  sequence  of 
movements  and,  to  some  extent,  of  sensations  other 
than  motor,  as  the  child  acts  and  reacts  in  ways  favoring 
self-preservation.  Conscious  intelligence  is  developed 
by  receiving  and  relating  the  sensations  thus  produced. 

Since  each  new  instinct  modifies  action,  and  since  in- 
stinctive tendencies  are  the  basis  of  interest,  conscious 
intelligence  is  greatly  influenced  by  mechanical  and 
instinctive  intelligence  long  after  the  early  days  of 
infantile  irresponsibility  are  past. 

As  conscious  intelligence  develops,  it  chooses,  from 
the  various  possibilities  presented  to  it  by  the  results  of 
previous  action,  those  objects  and  acts  that  are  most 
pleasing.  In  every  form  of  repeated  action,  however, 
conscious  intelligence  soon  becomes  more  or  less  un- 
necessary because  of  the  development  of   the  uncon- 

247 


248  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

scious  intelligence  of  habit.  The  chief  difference 
between  the  intellect  of  the  child  and  of  the  man,  there- 
fore, is  that  the  child's  actions  are  controlled  largely  by 
unconscious  instiitctive  impulses  and  interests,  and  the 
man's  by  unconscious  habitual  reactions  and  interests. 
The  conscious  intelligence  of  the  man  is  not  essentially 
different  from  that  of  the  child,  except  that  the  extent 
of  its  activity  is  greater  because  of  more  numerous 
experiences,  and  its  direction  different  because  of  other 
instinctive  and  developed  interests. 

The  problem  of  intellectual  development  is  therefore 
simply  one  of  determining  the  influence  of  instinctive 
tendencies  upon  its  direction  and  vigor,  and  correlat- 
ing these  truths  with  all  that  is  known  of  the  effects 
of  experience  upon  the  growth  of  intelligence.  All 
that  physiology  and  psychology  teach  us  of  habit  and 
association,  as  well  as  all  that  child  study  teaches  us  of 
the  development  of  instinct,  must  be  utilized  in  explain- 
ing the  changes  that  take  place  with  age. 

In  this  study  we  must  recognize  that  conscious  intelli- 
gence may  be  gradually  and  unconsciously  modified,  as 
well  as  changed  suddenly  and  consciously.  This  is 
demonstrated  by  Judd's  experiments,  in  which  persons 
who  did  not  know  the  object  of  the  experiment  be- 
came more  and  more  accurate  in  adjusting  the  parts  of 

this  line  so  as  to  make  ac  seem  equal  g>       t< >^  to  cb. 

One  who  recalls  accurately  his  former  mental  states 
will  also  recognize  without  experiment  that  his  judg- 
ments have  been  unconsciously  modified  in  various 
ways.  When  we  take  into  account  unconscious  as 
well  as  conscious  modifications  of  mind,  we  realize  that 
the  enormous  differences  between  the  intellects  of  adults 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INTELLECT  249 

in  general,  and  children  in  general,  as  well  as  between 
individual  adults  of  different  training,  may  be  accounted 
for  largely  by  difference  in  kind  and  number  of  experi- 
ences. Habits  of  analyzing,  associating,  and  classifying, 
and  standards  of  judgment,  though  influenced  to  some 
extent  by  instinctive  interests,  are  largely  determined  by 
experience  and  training.  Since  the  character  of  the  in- 
tellect at  each  age  is  so  largely  the  result  of  experience 
and  so  little  influenced  by  inner  laws  of  development, 
our  study  of  the  different  phases  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment will  necessarily  be  more  a  study  of  general  laws  of 
psychology  and  habit  than  of  innate  laws  of  child  devel- 
opment. 

The  most  important  question  in  regard  to  intellectual 
development  is,  as  to  whether  special  training  of  any 
kind  produces  general  training  of  the  mind  as  a  whole 
or  even  of  powers  similar  to  those  exercised.  A  thorough 
scientific  training  in  perceiving  flowers  may  or  may  not 
improve  one's  perception  of  rocks,  or  of  ladies'  hats. 
It  was  formerly  assumed  that  training  the  attention, 
memory,  or  reason  in  one  line  of  study  increased  one's 
power  to  attend,  remember,  or  reason  in  all  other  Hnes. 
This  is  now  being  questioned. 

Physiological  experiments  show  that  training  one  set 
of  muscles  increases  the  size  or  skill  of  other  muscles 
that  are  frequently  associated  with  them  (especially  the 
corresponding  muscles  on  the  other  side  of  the  body). 
In  a  similar  way  training  in  an  intellectual  act,  such 
as  discriminating  the  shape  of  leaves,  may  and  must 
give  exercise  in  concentration,  and  favor  clear  images 
and  accurate  retention ;  and  it  can  scarcely  fail  to 
increase   the   accuracy  of   discrimination    of  the  forms 


250  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

of  Other  objects  so  far  as  they  are  similar.  If,  however, 
the  form  and  size  are  greatly  different,  the  special  train- 
ing will  increase  the  accuracy  of  judgment  only  slightly, 
if  at  all.  Thorndike  found  that  practice  in  judging  the 
length  of  short  lines  did  not  improve  the  judgment  as 
to  the  length  of  long  lines.  It  seems  altogether  prob- 
able, therefore,  that  acquiring  skill  in  one  line  does  not 
increase  skill  in  any  other  line  except  in  so  far  as  the 
activity  is  complex  and  requires  that  some  of  the  powers 
that  have  been  trained  shall  be  used  in  the  new  act 
in  the  same  way.  If  they  have  been  used,  but  not  in 
the  same  way,  as  when  one  is  sorting  the  same  kinds 
of  cards,  but  putting  one  kind  where  he  had  formerly 
put  the  other  (as  in  Bergstrom's  experiments),  the  for- 
mer training  hinders,  at  least  for  a  time,  rather  than 
helps.  In  the  case  of  all  acts  that  become  fixed  habits, 
special  training  probably  does  not  directly  produce  gen- 
eral results. 

In  new  and  more  purely  intellectual  acts,  however, 
where  the  "idea"  rather  than  the  ''trial  and  success" 
method  of  learning  is  used,  consciousness,  by  singling 
out  and  combining  the  right  elements  of  former 
activities,  may  at  once  utilize  former  special  training 
in  any  one  of  a  variety  of  ways.  This  peculiar  power 
of  the  human  intellect,  by  which  it  can  go  beyond 
any  individual  experience,  is  possessed  in  but  a  slight 
degree,  if  at  all,  by  animals,  which  are  almost  wholly 
without  the  power  of  generalization.  Hence  all  training 
of  animals  must  be  mechanical  and  special.  A  child 
or  man  who  learns  in  that  way  gets  nothing  but  the 
special  training  that  is  given  him,  while  one  who  uses 
intelligence  and  insight  while  learning,  goes  forward  by 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  25 1 

leaps  and  bounds  and  is  able  to  utilize  his  special  knowl- 
edge and  power  in  other  ways.  If  one  is  practising 
such  an  exercise  as  tossing  and  catching  two  balls,  his 
successes  as  compared  with  failures  in  catching  the  balls 
will  increase  but  gradually,  unless  he  uses  insight  and 
consciously  chooses  the  best  methods,  such  as  throwing 
the  balls  so  they  will  rise  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  centre 
of  his  body.  If  he  takes  advantage  of  such  ideas,  im- 
provement is  immediate  rather  than  gradual. 

The  insight  thus  gained  can  then  be  used  in  throwing 
and  catching  anything.  Without  such  insight  the 
unconscious  manual  skill  acquired  by  the  practice  in 
catching  balls  would  be  of  little  help  in  catching 
larger,  heavier,  or  differently  shaped  objects.  Probably 
only  the  more  or  less  conscious  generalizations  made 
in  special  training  are  effective  as  general  training, 
except  where  the  parts  of  the  processes  are  identical. 
It  is  important  to  bear  this  in  mind  in  judging  of  the 
practical  or  general  educational  value  of  different  kinds 
of  knowledge  and  the  utility  of  any  proposed  method  of 
training. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    DISCRIMINATION 

Discrimination  is  one  of  the  most  essential  of  all  men- 
tal powers,  and  it  seems  to  be  greater  in  adults  than  in 
children.  It  may  be  doubted,  however,  whether  the 
better  discrimination  of  adults  is  not  a  matter  of 
special  knowledge  and  practice,  helped  a  little  by  in- 
creased power  of  analysis  and  concentration.  An 
Indian  can  read  the  signs  of  the  passage  of  enemies  or 
wild  animals  much  more  perfectly  than  the  white  man, 
who  is  so  acute  as  to  read  little  black  marks  on  paper , 


252  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

a  sailor  can  see  land  long  before  the  landsman,  and  a 
blind  man  can  recognize  persons  by  touch  or  sound  with 
a  readiness  astonishing  to  a  seeing  man.  In  all  these 
cases  one  seems  to  have  greater  power  of  discrimination 
than  the  other ;  but  in  every  case  it  is  probably  wholly 
the  result  of  special  knowledge  and  practice.  Each 
knows  what  signs  to  look  for  and  what  they  mean,  while 
the  man  of  different  training  is  familiar  with  an  entirely 
different  set  of  signs.  Each  has  certain  centres  devel- 
oped, but  we  cannot  say  that  one  has  greater  general 
power  of  discrimination  than  the  other.  The  effect  of 
knowledge  upon  discrimination  is  impressed  upon  one 
when  he  tries  to  read  familiar  sentences  and  unknown 
names  in  a  dim  light,  or  in  poor  writing,  for  one  may 
easily  be  read  while  the  other  cannot  be  made  out 
at  all. 

The  extensive  experiments  of  Gilbert  upon  children 
of  school  age,  indicated  that  their  power  of  discrimina- 
tion of  weight,  distance,  color,  pitch,  etc.,  increased  from 
two  to  five  times  with  age  —  a  difference  corresponding 
pretty  well  to  that  which  may  be  produced  in  certain 
lines  in  a  short  time  by  special  training.  Since  most 
of  his  tests  were  made  in  such  a  way  that  comparison 
and  classification  of  a  number  of  stimuli,  as  ten  colors, 
were  required,  instead  of  mere  discrimination  between 
two,  it  is  probable  that  the  superiority  of  the  older 
children  was  due  partly  to  increased  power  of  concentra- 
tion, systematic  comparison  and  expression,  and  partly 
to  greater  practice  in  making  discriminations  similar 
to  those  tested,  and  not  at  all  to  any  fundamental 
difference  in  the  power  of  discrimination  of  children 
and  adults. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   INTELLECT  253 

DEVELOPMENT    IN    RATE    OF    MENTAL    ACTIVITY 

The  difference  in  the  mental  quickness  or  reaction 
time  of  children  and  adults  is  very  marked,  but  it  may 
be  doubted  if  it  would  exist  were  both  to  face  an  experi- 
ence equally  new  to  both.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
any  act,  physical  or  mental,  can  be  performed  more 
quickly  after  practice.  The  reasons  for  this  are  : 
(i)  nervous  impulses  move  more  rapidly  so  that  move- 
ment and  thought  are  quicker  ;  (2)  they  go  more  directly 
and  continuously  so  that  motion  and  thought  are  less 
diffuse,  and  (3)  several  series  of  impulses  move  at  once, 
as  when  one  is  reading  notes,  playing  with  both  hands, 
and  singing  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  simple  reaction  time  to  be  re- 
duced one-half  by  practice ;  and  complex  tasks  are  fre- 
quently done,  after  a  few  months'  practice,  in  from  a  half 
to  a  fifth  of  the  time  required  for  the  first  performance. 
Hence,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  difference  in  mental 
quickness  of  children  and  adults  is  entirely  the  result 
of  incidental  practice  in  activities  that  are  the  same,  or 
partly  the  same,  as  those  tested.  The  tests  of  Bryan, 
Hancock,  and  Gilbert,  on  rates  of  movement,  and  of  Gil- 
bert, Bentley,  Partridge,  and  Curtis  on  reaction  time, 
both  simple  and  complex,  show  that  from  school  age  to 
maturity  the  rate  of  movement  and  of  mental  activity 
is  not  quite  doubled,  and  that  the  improvement  is  great- 
est where  there  has  been  most  special  training,  as  in 
naming  printed  words,  rather  than  naming  pictures  or 
objects  ;  hence  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  the 
difference  between  adults  and  children  in  rate  of  mental 
activity  is  almost  wholly  the  result  of  training,  either 
special  or  incidental. 


254  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

INCREASE    IN    MENTAL   GRASP 

That  the  child's  mental  grasp  is  small,  is  evident  from 
his  first  attempts  at  speech.  He  cannot  keep  several 
syllables  in  mind  long  enough  to  pronounce  them  all. 
His  ideas  are  expressed  by  means  of  single  words  or 
gestures.  Soon  he  uses  two  words,  usually  a  predicate 
and  object  or  modifier.  His  sentences  grow  longer  as 
adjectives  and  other  modifying  words  are  added,  but  it 
is  a  long  time  before  conjunctions  are  used  and  com- 
pound sentences  formed.  Complex  sentences,  which  re- 
quire even  more  mental  grasp,  come  still  later.  A  little 
girl  of  thirty-two  months  understood,  when  told  to  eat  her 
potatoes  with  her  spoon  and  her  meat  with  her  fork,  but 
was  unable  to  hold  the  four  ideas  in  mind  while  she  got 
the  right  words  in  which  to  express  them.  A  few  days 
later,  however,  she  used  her  first  conjunction  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  I  pin  it  there  so  baby  can  get  it."  Children 
are  often  confused  when  told  to  do  more  than  one 
thing,  because  they  have  not  sufficient  grasp  of  con- 
sciousness to  hold  all  in  the  mind  at  once.  The  fact 
found  in  many  tests,  that  children  of  school  age  read  by 
words  and  cannot  carry  in  their  minds  any  but  short 
sentences,  while  older  children  and  adults  read  by 
phrases  or  even  clauses,  and  can  carry  in  consciousness 
enough  of  a  long,  complex,  and  compound  sentence  to 
give  each  clause  the  right  expression,  is  very  significant. 

The  experiments  of  Jacobs,  Jastrow,  Bolton,  Smedley, 
and  myself,  upon  children  of  school  age,  show  that  their 
ability  to  repeat  or  write  a  list  of  letters,  figures,  sylla- 
bles, or  familiar  words,  immediately  after  they  have  been 
heard  or  seen,  generally  increases  with  age  by  about  one- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  2$$ 

third,  from  the  age  of  eight  or  nine  to  eighteen.  As 
the  reproduction  is  immediate,  it  is  not  so  much  a  matter 
of  memory  proper  as  of  mental  grasp. 

The  cause  of  this  increase  in  mental  grasp  with  age 
is  probably  the  same  as  that  which  makes  it  possible 
for  us  to  hold  in  mind  a  long  description  of  a  route  to 
be  taken  among  familiar  objects;  while  a  short  descrip- 
tion of  a  route  among  unfamiliar  objects  cannot  be  kept 
in  mind  long  enough  perhaps  to  get  started  right.  The 
same  cause  makes  it  easy  for  a  skilful  chess  or  checker 
player  to  see  at  once  many  more  results  of  a  move  than 
he  could  when  he  began,  or  for  an  experienced  musician 
to  play  with  both  hands,  work  the  pedals,  perceive  the 
notes,  and  sing  the  words  of  a  song  all  at  the  same  time. 
In  other  words,  ideas,  or  a  series  of  ideas,  and  even  com- 
binations of  several  series  of  ideas  that  have  become 
definite  and  well  established,  are  easily  held  in  mind, 
while  indefinite  and  newly  formed  ideas  can  be  kept 
in  consciousness  only  in  limited  numbers  and  with 
effort. 

The  ideas  of  the  child  are  largely  new,  while  those  of 
the  adult  are  oftener  old  or  connected  with  old  ideas  ; 
hence  the  adult's  mental  grasp  is  greater  chiefly  because 
of  knowledge  and  experience.  The  effect  of  knowledge 
on  mental  grasp  is  well  shown  by  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  which  first-grade  children  and  adults  repro- 
duce ordinary  letters,  Greek  letters,  and  familiar 
sentences.  The  adults  have  little  advantage  in  the 
case  of  Greek  letters,  a  great  deal  in  ordinary  letters, 
and  are  almost  infinitely  better  in  reproducing  the  let- 
ters making  a  sentence.  Evidently  the  difference  is 
due  to  greater  familiarity  and  increased  mental  grasp. 


2S6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

DEVELOPMENT   OF    PERCEPTION 

Perception  depends  upon  three  things  :  (i)  the  sensa- 
tions experienced  at  the  moment ;  (2)  power  of  discrimi- 
nation, and  (3)  the  results  of  past  experiences  that  are 
reproduced  more  or  less  perfectly  at  the  moment  of 
perceiving.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
sensations  of  children  and  adults  differ  materially.  The 
power  of  discrimination  varies,  as  we  have  seen,  with 
special  practice.  The  chief  difference,  therefore,  in  the 
perception  of  a  child  and  an  adult,  is  in  the  past  experi- 
ences that  are  called  up  by  the  sensations. 

Since  the  adult  has  many  more  experiences  that  may 
be  suggested  by  a  sensation  than  a  child,  there  is  a 
greater  possibility  of  a  wrong  idea  being  awakened ;  but 
this  is  offset  by  greater  power  of  discrimination,  hence, 
though  the  adult  is  not  always  more  quick  in  classifying 
an  object  or  interpreting  a  sensation,  he  is  likely  to  be 
more  definite  and  accurate  than  the  child  who  has  fewer 
possibilities  suggested  from  his  limited  experience,  but 
who  does  not  so  readily  analyze  and  note  essentials. 
The  difference  is  not,  however,  greater  than  that  between 
adults  of  different  occupations,  such  as  a  botanist  and  a 
milliner,  a  printer  and  a  pilot. 

The  practical  necessity  in  all  perception  is  not  to 
note  the  exact  nature  of  the  sensations  produced  by 
different  objects  and  under  different  circumstances,  but 
to  recognize  objects  and  react  to  them  in  the  proper  way. 
Nothing  but  a  sphere  gives,  in  all  positions,  the  same 
visual  sensations ;  hence  we  learn  to  know,  not  the 
apparent  form  of  objects,  but  their  real  form.  This 
"real"  form,  however,  is  simply  the  appearance  which 


DEVELOPMENT  OF    INTELLECT  257 

they  assume  when  perceived  most  clearly,  i.e.  when  near 
at  hand,  directly  in  front,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
of  sight.  Other  sensations  vary  also.  For  example,  the 
sound  produced  by  an  object  depends  upon  what  it  is 
struck  with,  as  well  as  its  distance  ;  while  objects  vary 
in  taste  according  as  they  are  more  or  less  hot  or  cold, 
wet  or  dry,  etc. 

Before  the  child  enters  school,  he  has  learned  to  know 
just  what  appearances  may  be  relied  upon  as  indicating 
a  certain  form,  sound,  taste,  or  touch.  He  has  also 
learned  an  immense  number  of  correspondences  between 
the  different  senses,  so  that  he  no  longer  needs  to  feel 
of  most  things  he  sees,  in  order  to  know,  as  much  as  he 
wishes,  of  how  they  will  feel,  or  to  strike  or  taste  them, 
to  know  how  they  will  sound  or  taste.  Yet  there  are 
many  appearances  and  correspondences  that  he  does 
not  know  very  well,  and  hence,  as  compared  with  adults, 
he  is  still  at  considerable  disadvantage  in  judging  ob- 
jects. He  also  fails  to  note  fine  distinctions  unless 
necessity  requires  it,  for  very  different  sensations  have 
nearly  the  same  practical  meaning  to  him. 

The  necessity  of  identifying  an  object  by  means  of 
sensations  suggesting  its  "■  true  appearance,"  rather 
than  by  the  exact  sensations  it  gives,  together  with 
the  limited  power  of  discrimination  that  children  have, 
renders  them  very  stiggestible,  or,  in  other  words,  un- 
discriminating  as  to  whether  a  sensation  is  actually 
experienced  or  only  called  up  by  other  sensations. 
Small  found,  that  of  children  in  the  first  grade  about 
nine  out  of  ten  could  be  made  to  think  that  they 
experienced  sensations  of  taste,  smell,  temperature, 
and  visual  movements,  when  no  such  sensations  were 


258  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

given  them ;  while  the  proportion  that  could  thus  be 
deceived,  became  very  much  smaller  in  the  higher 
grades.  My  own  tests  with  ink  spots  also  showed  that 
critical  judgment  becomes  more  prominent  than  sug- 
gestibility in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  habit  of  the  adult  mind  of 
looking  only  for  essential  characteristics  may  lead 
him  into  error  when  the  conditions  or  his  purposes 
change.  For  example,  it  is  very  hard  for  one  who  has 
been  reading  rapidly  for  the  purpose  of  getting  thought, 
to  read  a  printed  page  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  the 
proof.  If  the  thought  and  language  are  very  familiar, 
as  when  the  proof  is  of  an  article  by  one's  self,  the 
errors  overlooked  are  likely  to  be  very  numerous.  Pills- 
bury's  tests  show  that  familiar  words  misspelled  are 
frequently  read  without  the  error  being  noticed,  and 
that  letters  spelling  nothing  are  often  seen  as  words. 
Children,  therefore,  sometimes  notice  mistakes  in  spell- 
ing and  changes  in  the  arrangement  of  things  that  are 
overlooked  by  adults,  because  the  tendency  to  perceive 
certain  words  and  arrangements  is  not  so  strongly 
developed  in  them. 

Since  the  purpose  of  perception  is  to  identify  objects 
and  make  the  proper  reaction  to  them,  and  since  the 
characteristics  to  be  noted  differ  according  to  the  end 
in  view,  quickness  and  accuracy  in  perception  depend 
on  discrimination  in  relation  to  the  end  to  be  gained. 
Definiteness  and  accuracy  of  perception  can,  there- 
fore, only  be  developed  by  practice  in  perceiving  for  a 
purpose.  Careful  discrimination  of  sensations,  analy- 
sis, and  the  discovery  of  essential  characteristics,  and 
the  learning  of  what  characteristics  go  together,  so  that 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  259 

when  one  is  experienced,  others  may  be  inferred,  are 
the  natural  results  of  efforts  to  obtain  practical  ends. 
For  example,  in  learning  to  tell  when  watermelons  are 
ripe,  the  color,  hardness,  sound,  and  appearance  of  the 
melon  and  of  the  curl  are  discriminated,  and  their  con- 
nection with  the  inside  appearance  and  taste  of  the 
melon  is  noted.  Or,  again,  in  trying  to  build  a  house 
with  blocks  so  that  it  will  stand  and  look  pretty,  care- 
ful discrimination  of  form,  position,  size,  and  color  of 
the  blocks,  and  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  is  neces- 
sary. Similar  statements  are  true  of  nearly  all  games, 
plays,  and  construction  in  which  children  engage,  as  well 
as  in  drawing,  writing,  and  all  affairs  of  practical  life. 

The  function  of  the  teacher  in  such  training  is  prin- 
cipally to  put  before  the  child  interesting  and  definite 
things  to  be  done  or  found  out,  and  to  occasionally 
direct  his  attention  toward  essential  characteristics  so 
that  habits  of  analytic  and  concentrated  attention  will 
be  developed.  This  gives  a  training  in  perception  not 
to  be  gained  by  any  series  of  exercises  for  the  special 
purpose  of  training  the  senses  only. 

Since  such  training  of  perception  is,  in  the  nature  of 
the  case,  special  as  regards  the  purposes  directing  it, 
general  training  in  perception  can  be  secured  only  by 
getting  children  interested  not  only  in  many  things,  but 
in  many  things  from  various  points  of  view,  as  the  prac- 
tical, scientific,  aesthetic. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  POWER  TO  IMAGE 

True  images  are  formed  only  when  an  object  not  pres- 
ent is  represented,  as  when  a  child  recognizes  that  some 
person  or  object  is  not  in  the  usual  place.     Language 


260  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

is  probably  an  important  factor  in  developing  such 
images  :  the  sound  of  the  word  "  dog,"  being  closely 
associated  with  the  animal,  calls  up  a  visual  image  of 
him  just  as  his  barking  does.  Words  are  for  some 
time  almost  as  closely  associated  with  objects  as  are 
the  sensations  concerned  in  their  perception.  The 
name  of  an  object  is  really,  to  the  child,  a  part  of  his 
perception  of  the  object ;  hence  it  is  not  strange  that  a 
little  boy  put  a  curl  at  the  end  of  the  word  "dog"  he  had 
written,  to  represent  the  tail,  or  that  a  little  girl  of  three 
and  a  half  readily  learned  the  script  word  "cow,"  be- 
cause the  finishing  stroke  of  the  last  letter  looked  to 
her  like  a  horn  or  "hook,"  as  she  called  it. 

After  a  child  has  gained  the  power  to  form  mental 
images,  he  takes  much  the  same  pleasure  in  forming 
them  that  he  showed  a  little  earlier  in  getting  sensa- 
tions of  all  kinds.  His  first  interest  in  stories  is  largely 
the  pleasure  of  forming  mental  pictures  of  all  the  famil- 
iar objects  and  acts  named.  It  is  some  time  before  the 
connection  of  the  parts  of  the  story  is  of  much  signifi- 
cance to  him. 

By  the  time  the  child  is  three  or  four  years  old,  the 
parts  of  short  stories  are  connected  so  as  to  give  a 
pretty  good  understanding  of  the  story  as  a  whole. 
This  means  that  the  mental  grasp  and  power  of  con- 
structive imagination  is  developed  so  that  he  can  com- 
bine mentally  several  acts  and  images  according  to 
verbal  direction. 

Soon  the  child  recognizes  his  power  in  this  direction, 
and  begins  to  combine  mental  images  according  to  his 
own  ideas.  He  now  experiences  something  of  the  same 
pleasure  that  he  felt  when  he  got  beyond  the  stage  in 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INTELLECT  26 1 

which  sensations  were  changed  for  him  by  the  action 
of  other  people,  into  the  stage  in  which  he  effected  the 
changes  for  himself  by  his  own  movements.  His  daily 
sensory  activities  have  lost  the  charm  of  novelty,  the 
stories  told  him  have  directed  his  imagining  in  a  way 
that  is  new  and  pleasurable,  yet  this  pleasure  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  will  of  others ;  hence  it  is  an  important 
epoch  in  the  child's  development  when  he  learns  that 
he  can  use  the  power  of  free  creative  imagination,  and 
experience  whatever  combinations  of  mental  images  he 
wishes,  independent  of  his  surroundings  and  of  the 
action  of  other  people.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore, 
that  some  children  for  several  years  live  a  large  part  of 
the  time  in  this  free  imaginary  world,  which  they  peo- 
ple with  toys,  animals,  and  imaginary  companions  that 
conform  to  the  will  of  their  creator. 

This  imaginary  world  may  seem  as  real  and  more 
important  to  the  child  than  the  world  of  solid  reality ; 
hence  to  tell  what  takes  place  in  it  is  more  pleasurable 
than  to  describe  uninteresting  realities.  He  tells  imagi- 
nary experiences  as  naturally  as  an  adult  tells  a  dream, 
and  no  Qioral  significance  should  be  attached  to  the 
child's  stories  until  he  distinguishes  between  the  ex- 
periences of  the  two  worlds  and  learns  to  appreciate 
the  desirability  of  making  such  distinction  clear  in  all 
that  he  tells. 

The  child's  images  are  often  more  vivid  (at  least  as 
compared  with  the  original  perceptions)  than  in  later 
life.  Some  children  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
images  from  percepts,  so  that  their  images  are  in  reality 
hallucinations.  It  is  probable  that  after  definite  stand- 
ards of  "true  appearances"  have  been  estabHshed,  images 


262  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

usually  become  less  vivid  with  increased  age,  except  at 
about  fourteen  or  fifteen,  when  images  are  for  a  time 
probably  more  vivid. 

One  reason  for  decreased  vividness  of  images  is  that 
one  finds  it  necessary  to  note  class  rather  than  indi- 
vidual characteristics  as  he  meets  with  many  varieties. 
For  example,  lilies  or  turnips  are  easily  pictured,  so  long 
as  only  white  ones  are  known,  and  officers  are  easily 
imaged  so  long  as  only  a  few  large,  blue-coated  police- 
men have  been  seen  ;  but  when  many  varieties  have 
been  met  with,  mental  images  are  a  less  satisfactory 
means  of  thinking  of  each  class  of  objects.  The  increase 
in  vividness  of  images  at  fourteen  or  fifteen  is  probably 
correlated  with  physiological  and  emotional  changes. 
After  puberty,  images  become  more  or  less  vivid, 
according  to  the  nature  of  one's  mental  operations.  A 
student  of  an  abstract  subject  is  likely  to  image  less, 
and  an  artist  or  anatomist,  more  vividly  and  definitely. 

The  studies  of  Phillips  and  others  show  that  many 
peculiar  number,  form,  and  color  associations  originate 
in  the  early  years,  usually  before  entering  school. 

As  regards  accuracy  of  images,  the  results  depend 
upon  interest  and  practice.  Wolfe  found  that  younger 
children  represented  the  size  of  pieces  of  silver  money, 
of  bills,  areas  of  circles,  and  length  of  lines  in  inches, 
more  accurately  than  either  the  fourth  grade  or  the  uni- 
versity students.  My  own  studies,  also,  indicated  that 
there  is  little  difference  with  age  as  regards  judgments 
of  the  size  of  a  quart  measure,  distance  apart  of  carriage 
wheels,  number  of  wings  and  legs  of  a  fly,  etc.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  power  to  image  words,  as  shown  by 
ability  to  spell,  grows  with  age  during  school  life. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  INTELLECT  263 

As  to  kind  of  images  most  used,  observation  does 
not  confirm  the  a  priori  view  that  taste  and  smell  are 
more  prominent  in  the  mental  life  of  the  child  than  of 
the  adult,  for  young  children  discriminate  poorly  with 
those  senses,  and  are  readily  drawn  from  them  by  stimu- 
lating the  eye  or  the  ear.  It  is  not  likely,  therefore, 
that  they  play  much  part  in  the  child's  mental  imagery, 
especially  as  his  chief  food,  milk,  has  little  taste  or  odor. 
In  general,  for  people  in  America,  the  changes  in  kind 
of  imagery  are  from  motor  and  auditory  imagery  to  the 
visual,  especially  as  regards  symbols,  such  as  words. 
According  to  Smedley,  the  climax  of  ability  to  repro- 
duce auditory  numbers  is  reached  between  thirteen  and 
fourteen,  and  for  visual  numbers  between  seventeen 
and  eighteen.  The  experience  that  the  child  has  in  the 
schoolroom  of  learning  a  visual  language,  learning  visual 
signs  for  numbers,  of  studying  things  by  means  of  pic- 
tures and  diagrams,  and  of  being  required  to  perform 
mathematical  and  other  operations  by  means  of  visual 
images,  develops  the  tendency  to  represent  everything 
visually.  In  the  lower  grades  the  child's  words  and 
numbers  are  auditory  and  motor;  but  as  he  reaches 
maturity,  visual  words  and  figures  become  more  promi- 
nent, until  finally  adults  can  often  understand  visual 
language  much  better  than  auditory. 

GROWTH    OF    CONSTRUCTIVE    IMAGINATION 

Constructive  imagination  depends  for  its  development 
upon  (i)  the  acquisition  of  mental  images,  (2)  attention, 
or  power  of  control  of  images,  and  (3)  mental  grasp. 

(i)  As  bricks  could  not  be  made  without  straw,  so  con- 
structive imagination  cannot  act  without  mental  images. 


264  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

(2)  Power  of  attention,  or  control  of  mental  images, 
is  no  less  necessary.  Constructive  imagination  differs 
from  reproductive  imagination  or  memory,  inasmuch 
as  images  are  not  combined  as  they  were  in  the  original 
experience ;  and  from  creative  imagination,  inasmuch 
as  the  mode  of  combining  images  is  not  determined 
by  the  choice  or  the  habits  of  the  one  imaging,  but  by 
the  directions  of  another.  Considerable  power  of  atten- 
tion or  voluntary  control  therefore  is  necessary.  In 
listening  to  a  description  of  a  house,  for  example,  one 
must  not  give  it  color,  size,  position,  material,  etc.,  ac- 
cording to  his  past  experience  or  his  own  taste,  but  pic- 
ture each  according  to  the  description  as  he  hears  or 
reads  the  words. 

The  disposition  of  mental  images  is  difficult  to  the 
child,  for  much  the  same  reasons  as  is  accurate  control 
of  movements.  Yet  if  the  words  are  familiar,  the 
subject  interesting,  the  arrangement  of  the  ideas  in 
accordance  with  the  child's  habits  of  thinking,  and  the 
rate  neither  too  fast  nor  too  slow,  the  words  direct  his 
attention  so  that  little  effort  on  his  part  is  necessary. 
This  experience  in  thus  having  his  attention  directed, 
prepares  him  to  direct  his  attention  according  to  the 
words,  when  not  so  interesting  or  so  well  arranged. 

(3)  Yet,  however  well  the  child's  attention  may  be 
directed,  his  mental  grasp  is  limited  ;  hence  complicated 
descriptions,  which  require  that  a  number  of  things  shall 
be  kept  in  the  mind  at  once,  in  order  that  they  may 
be  properly  related,  are  beyond  a  child's  powers.  For 
these  reasons,  the  abiUty  of  children  to  draw  or  do  things 
according  to  direction  is  limited.  The  kindergarten 
child  may  be  able  to  place  the  base  of  a  triangle  on  the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  265 

top  side  of  a  square ;  but  if  the  number  of  figures  and 
positions  are  several,  he  is  unable  to  hold  all  the  images 
in  mind  so  as  to  construct  the  figure.  For  the  same 
reason  primary  children  are  unable  to  make  complicated 
things,  comprehend  long  sentences,  appreciate  stories 
having  many  characters  and  incidents,  or  perform  prob- 
lems involving  several  numbers  or  conditions. 

Since  mental  grasp  in  any  line  increases  as  ideas  in 
that  particular  line  become  more  familiar,  the  power  of 
constructive  imagination  may  increase  much  more  in 
some  lines  than  in  others.  A  child,  therefore,  who  can 
readily  represent,  visually,  certain  combinations  of  fig- 
ures, lines,  or  letters,  may  fail  in  the  less  familiar  ones, 
or  find  it  hard  to  represent  the  result  of  combining  two 
or  more  sounds,  and  hence  be  slow  in  word  building. 

The  constructive  imagination  is  called  into  play  by 
stories,  reading,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  history,  pro- 
viding they  are  taught  as  they  should  be,  and  by  all 
directions  such  as  are  given  in  physical  exercises.  The 
proper  understanding  of  lessons,  and  the  development 
of  accurate  constructive  imagination,  cannot  be  brought 
about  by  allowing  the  pupil  to  perceive  every  object 
and  combination  every  time,  but  by  having  them  partly 
imaged  and  partly  shown,  then  imaged  by  the  help  of 
simple  pictures,  diagrams,  or  gestures,  and  finally  by 
means  of  words  only. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF    CREATIVE    IMAGINATION 

The  essentials  of  creative  imagination,  aside  from 
abundance  of  images  from  past  experiences,  are  free 
activity  and  the  impulse  to  create  stirred  by  interest. 

(i)    Free  activity  means  either  spontaneous  activity  or 


266  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

activity  whose  excitant  is  so  subtle  that  it  is  not 
discernible.  To  put  it  in  physiological  terms,  nervous 
impulses  tend  to  diffuse  themselves  to  parts  that  have 
not  been  active,  or  to  pass  irregularly  from  one  estab- 
lished centre  of  activity  to  another.  If  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  such  activity,  many  unusual  combinations 
of  mental  images  will  result,  a  large  portion  of  which 
may  be  merely  absurd  or  grotesque  (as  they  usually  are 
in  dreams),  but  some  of  which  are  likely  to  be  artistic 
or  useful. 

Careful  training,  which  results  in  definite  ideas  and 
particular  ways  of  doing  things,  if  continued  for  a  long 
time,  checks  the  tendency  to  free  activity  and  may  de- 
stroy the  power  of  creative  imagination.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  untrained  men  like  Edison  are  often  the 
most  original.  Definite  training,  with  some  imitation  of 
various  models,  gives  a  good  basis  for  the  development 
of  the  creative  imagination  ;  but  the  training  and  the 
imitation  must  be  varied  and  not  too  long  continued  in 
one  line,  or  the  material  becomes  "  set "  by  habit,  and 
can  be  arranged  only  in  the  customary  ways.  An 
artist,  for  example,  who  studies  and  imitates  one  school 
of  painting  only,  for  years,  can  never  become  an  original 
painter. 

(2)  The  impulse  to  create  cannot  be  directly  produced 
by  training,  since  it  comes  from  instinctive  tendencies 
to  construct  and  express,  stirred  by  various  emotions. 
It  is  especially  strong  when  new  experiences  are  met 
or  new  instincts  come  into  prominence.  One  of  the  first 
emotions  to  stir  the  imagination  is  often  that  of  fear, 
especially  when  the  child  is  alone  in  the  dark.  Later  the 
more  aesthetic  emotions  stimulate  the  imagination.     The 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  267 

earliest  creations  are  likely  to  be  expressed  in  actions, 
especially  in  representative  or  dramatic  plays,  and  in 
constructions,  at  first  with  blocks,  then  in  making  toys, 
forts,  and  machines.  After  several  years  of  school  life, 
oral  language,  music,  and  drawing,  and  a  little  later, 
written  language,  are  the  principal  media  of  expression. 
The  subjects  with  which  creative  imagination  deals 
are  various,  but  are  evidently  determined  by  the  emo- 
tional and  instinctive  interests  prominent  at  different 
ages.  Moreover,  new  experiences  or  ideas  of  one  age 
become  entirely  familiar  a  little  later,  and  hence  do 
not  excite  the  imagination  unless  they  are  brought  into 
new  relations.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  say  just 
what  exercises  are  best  to  develop  the  creative  imagi- 
nation of  a  child  or  group  of  children,  unless  one  knows 
the  children  ;  but  we  may  say  in  general,  that  whatever 
stirs  the  emotions  and  excites  a  desire  to  do  something 
stimulates  imagination,  and  that  previous  experiences 
in  perceiving  good  models,  and  in  imitating,  expressing, 
and  constructing,  furnish  the  conditions  for  its  effective 
use.  For  example,  to  tell  a  child  to  write  an  autobiog- 
raphy of  an  oak  tree  when  he  knows  little  about  how 
the. oak  tree  grows,  and  less  about  what  an  autobiogra- 
phy is,  would  be  absurd ;  but  if  he  had  recently  heard 
several  biographies,  and  had  been  studying  about  acorns 
and  oaks,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  would  have  both 
the  impulse  and  the  necessary  training  that  would  lead 
him  to  write  an  imaginative  autobiography.  His  pre- 
vious experience  in  writing,  as  a  mechanical  act  and  as 
a  means  of  expressing  his  own  ideas,  and  his  interest  in 
autobiographies  and  in  the  growth  of  oaks,  together 
with  the  special  motive  for  expression,  as,  for  example, 


268  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

the  desire  to  write  a  story  that  will  please  mamma  when 
it  is  taken  home,  will,  with  other  things  too  numerous 
and  subtle  to  enumerate,  influence  the  activity  of  creat- 
ing and  expressing. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  creative  imagination 
is  more  dependent  upon  individuality,  mood,  and  special 
circumstances  than  any  other  mental  activity  that  may 
be  classed  as  intellectual,  yet  there  is  nothing  in  mental 
life  more  certainly  characteristic  for  different  ages  than 
the  nature  of  the  fancies  as  new  instincts  develop  and 
emotional  interests  change.  The  boy's  day  dreams  of 
a  dog  and  a  cart  have  no  attraction  for  the  youth  who 
pictures  himself  rescuing  a  beautiful  maiden,  or  for  the 
business  man,  politician;  or  artist  who  dreams  of  his 
plans  and  successes.  Learo3^d  and  Calkins,  who  secured 
by  inquiry  an  account  of  continued  stories  carried  on  in 
the  minds  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  persons, 
found  that  in  the  younger  years  such  stories  were  usu- 
ally concerned  with  fairies  and  martyrdoms,  in  late  child- 
hood and  youth  with  romance  and  adventure,  and  in 
maturer  years  with  practical  affairs. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    MEMORY 

As  already  shown,  mental  grasp  or  memory  span,  in 
reproducing  impressions  just  received,  increases  with 
age  in  a  marked  degree.  The  increase  in  power  to 
recall  after  an  interval  of  time,  which  is  more  properly 
called  memory,  is  much  less.  Jastrow  found  that  uni- 
versity students  remembered  only  i  or  2  per  cent  more 
words  after  an  interval  of  three  days  than  high  school 
students  five  years  younger.  My  tests  showed  little 
difference  in  the  reproduction  after  three  days,  of  words 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INTELLECT  269 

seen  or  heard  and  objects  shown,  by  children  from  the 
third  grade  up  to  college  students,  except  that  the  memory 
of  the  older  persons  was  more  voluntary  and  less  ready 
and  spontaneous.  Shaw  found  that  a  story  consisting  of 
three  hundred  and  twenty-four  words,  and  nearly  half  as 
many  distinct  facts,  was  reproduced  more  than  twice  as 
fully  by  pupils  of  the  ninth  grade  as  in  the  lowest  grade 
tested,  and  as  well  or  better  than  by  high  school  or  univer- 
sity students.  He  counted  as  correct,  facts  expressed  in 
other  words  than  those  given  in  the  story.  The  greater 
difference  with  age  in  this  test,  compared  with  others,  is 
probably  because  it  involved  associations  of  ideas  instead 
of  mere  retention  of  impressions.  If  we  take  into  account 
the  slight  mental  grasp  of  the  children  and  the  length  of 
time  required  for  them  to  express  what  they  remembered 
in  writing,  the  difference  in  memory  of  impressions  is 
almost  nothing,  and  in  memory  involving  associations  of 
ideas  is  not  very  great. 

The  receptivity  and  retentiveness  of  the  child's  brain 
is  probably  as  great  as  that  of  the  adult.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  memory  of  children  and  adults  is,  therefore,  a 
difference  in  kind  rather  than  in  degree,  and  is  caused 
largely  by  experience.  Nothing  that  can  be  used  as  a 
memory  test  is  as  new  for  the  adult  as  it  is  for  the 
child.  The  adult  already  knows  a  part  of  what  he  is 
given  to  remember,  or,  in  other  words,  certain  brain 
centres  have  already  had  practice  in  reproducing  such 
impressions.  In  the  adult  brain  also,  where  many  centres 
are  already  well  practised,  new  impressions  readily  run 
into  the  old  channels  ;  hence  impressions  are  easily  classi- 
fied, and  their  centres  readily  awakened  to  activity  again 
because  of  their  connection  with  centres  frequently  called 


270  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

into  action.  Finally,  the  adult  mind  has  more  power  of 
voluntary  attention,  both  in  receiving  impressions  and  in 
trying  to  reproduce  them  by  holding  in  mind  some  idea 
connected  with  them.  As  a  consequence,  the  spon- 
taneous and  unclassified  memories  of  adults  are  not 
better  than  those  of  children,  if  they  are  as  good,  while 
their  voluntary  and  systematic  memories  are  better. 

The  above  differences  are  most  marked  between  chil- 
dren and  well-educated  adults,  while  adults  without  sys- 
tematic training  differ  but  little  from  children  in  this 
respect.  The  trained  mind  has  much  greater  power  of 
attention,  and  a  much  more  definite  system  of  classified 
ideas,  or,  in  physiological  terms,  more  distinct  centres  of 
activity  and  paths  of  association.  Development  of  mem- 
ory is,  therefore,  largely  a  matter  of  training  in  habits  of 
attention  and  in  methods  of  classifying  impressions. 
Most  improvement  in  memory  is  special,  certain  classes 
of  things  only  being  attended  to,  classified,  and  remem- 
bered, while  others  are  unnoticed,  and  consequently  not 
remembered.  If  discoveries  or  improvements  in  his 
special  line  are  read,  respectively,  by  a  historian,  a  bota- 
nist, a  chemist,  a  psychologist,  a  bicyclist,  a  civil  engineer, 
or  a  doctor,  each  readily  attends  to,  classifies,  and  remem- 
bers the  facts  of  his  specialty  ;  but  all  would  experience 
great  difficulty  if  they  exchanged  memory  materials. 
So  special  is  the  development  of  power  in  these  direc- 
tions, that  one  man  may  remember  figures  indicating 
dates  readily,  but  utterly  fail  to  remember  a  list  of  prices 
readily  recalled  and  quoted  to  him  by  a  business  man. 
One  mathematician  who  could  repeat  in  order  as  high 
as  fifty-two  figures,  could  not  repeat  more  than  eight 
or  nine  letters  given  orally  as  were  the  figures. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT  27 1 

Memory  for  isolated  impressions,  and  in  fact  for 
nearly  all  things  that  are  largely  sensory,  reaches  its 
climax  early  in  the  teens.  The  plasticity  of  the  brain 
probably  decreases  after  puberty,  and  further  improve- 
ment in  memory  is  special,  conceptional,  associative,  and 
only  along  lines  in  which  one  has  already  started  ;  while 
the  tendency,  and  in  part  the  ability,  to  acquire  and 
retain  facts  in  other  lines  after  a  while  decreases  until 
in  old  age  the  number  of  facts  acquired  each  year  is 
very  much  less  than  the  number  that  are  forgotten. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    CONCEPTS 

The  child  is  largely  engaged  in  sense  perception,  and 
thus  his  thought  processes  are  not  far  removed  or  eas- 
ily distinguished  from  his  sense  activities.  The  sight 
of  its  mother  by  a  child  of  six  months  may  produce 
some  expectation  of  auditory,  tactile,  and  other  sensa- 
tions that  have  been  previously  experienced  in  connec- 
tion with  seeing  her.  There  is,  however,  probably  no 
distinct  or  separate  representation  of  each  of  these 
sensations  ;  yet  other  persons,  as  well  as  the  mother, 
are  distinguished  from  chairs,  beds,  and  other  inani- 
mate things,  and  call  up  a  different  class  of  images. 
There  must  therefore  be  the  beginning  of  the  concept 
of  a  class  of  objects  which  we  know  as  persons  with 
common  characteristics  differing  from  those  of  inani- 
mate things. 

This  crude  form  of  concept,  much  like  that  of  ani- 
mals, may  be  formed  without  language.  This  must 
have  been  the  case  when  a  child,  less  than  a  year  old, 
who  was  shown  a  bird,  turned  and  looked  at  a  stuffed 
bird  in  the  room,  and  when  another  child,  a  little  over 


2/2  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

a  year  old,  showed  surprise  and  fear  at  an  envelope 
that  seemed  to  move  of  itself,  which  was  contrary  to 
her  idea  of  that  class  of  objects.  A  child  can  sort 
blocks,  putting  those  of  a  color  together,  before  he 
can  point  to,  or  give  them  as  they  are  named.  In  the 
case  of  M.  this  was  true  for  a  year.  He  also  forms  class 
ideas  before  he  uses  class  names.  For  example,  men 
are  distinguished  from  other  objects,  and  from  women 
and  children,  by  the  particular  name  "  papa,"  but  they 
are  not  all  treated  as  that  particular  individual  is ;  hence 
papa  is  not  only  perceived  as  an  individual,  but  there 
is  a  crude  concept  of  the  class  to  which  he  belongs. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  language  is 
an  aid  in  the  development  of  thought,  and  a  necessary 
factor  in  all  general  and  abstract  thinking.  There  is 
nothing  in  general  and  abstract  concepts  such  as  ''organ- 
ism "  or  "color,"  by  which  they  can  be  recalled  or  indi- 
cated, except  a  sign  or  symbol  of  some  kind  that  can 
be  associated  with  the  common  element  in  the  variety 
of  experiences  giving  rise  to  the  concepts.  A  word  is  a 
convenient  mode  of  reacting  to  all  members  of  a  class 
of  objects,  and  therefore  an  important  part  of  the  con- 
cept as  well  as  a  means  of  recalling  and  expressing  it. 

The  first  few  hundred  words  and  concepts  are  gotten 
by  children  through  direct  association  with  objects  and 
experiences.  These  first  words  help  in  gaining  other 
concepts  and  words  as  the  child  hears  them  in  remarks 
and  stories,  and  in  answers  to  his  questions.  Often  for 
several  years  the  child's  questions  show  that  he  is  learn- 
ing the  general  qualities  of  things  of  which  he  is  trying 
to  form  concepts,  e.g.  "Is  iron  heavier  than  wood.-*" 
"  Will  iron  burn  }  "     "  Is  there  anything  stronger  than 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INTELLECT  273 

iron  ?  "  "  Where  do  we  get  iron  ?  "  or  again,  ''  What  do 
poUcemen  do  ?  "  "  Where  do  they  Hve  ?  "  ''  How  strong 
is  a  poUceman  ?  "  '*  Is  he  stronger  than  you  ?  "  "  Do 
they  always  have  a  club  ?  "  In  school,  formal  definitions, 
special  study,  and  reading  become  important  means  of 
acquiring  concepts  and  making  them  more  definite. 

Three  degrees  of  definiteness  of  concepts  may  be 
named  :  (i)  one  in  which  a  class  of  objects  can  usually  be 
distinguished  from  other  classes  in  ordinary  experience, 
but  whose  distinguishing  qualities  have  not  been  picked 
out  or  named,  as  when  a  child  can  tell  dogs  and  cats 
apart,  but  cannot  state  the  difference.  (2)  A  stage  in 
which  one  or  more  of  the  most  evident  characteristics 
that  distinguish  one  class  of  objects  from  other  classes, 
as  dogs  ''bark"  and  cats  ''mew,"  maybe  stated.  (3) 
Perfect  concepts  in  which  all  the  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics can  be  named,  or,  in  other  words,  when  a 
scientific  definition  can  be  given,  as,  "  A  parallelogram 
is  a  plane  figure  whose  opposite  sides  are  parallel  and 
equal."  A  young  child's  concepts  are  all  of  the  first 
degree,  while  the  most  cultivated  man  probably  has 
some  of  the  first  type,  and  a  good  many  of  the  second ; 
while  few  of  his  concepts  outside  of  the  lines  to  which 
he  has  given  special  study  are  of  the  third  degree. 

The  difficult  task  of  finding  what  concepts  of  com- 
mon things,  of  the  second  degree  of  definiteness,  are 
possessed  by  children  upon  entering  school,  has  been 
attempted  in  Berlin,  Boston,  and  other  places.  As  a 
result  of  such  study.  Dr.  Hall  concludes:  (i)  "There 
is  next  to  nothing  of  pedagogic  value,  the  knowledge 
of  which  is  safe  to  assume,  at  the  outset  of  school 
life.     (2)  The  best  preparation  parents  can  give  their 


274 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


children  for  good  school  training  is  to  make  them  ac- 
quainted with  natural  objects,  especially  with  sights 
and  sounds  of  the  country.  (3)  Every  teacher,  on 
starting  with  a  new  class,  or  in  a  new  locality,  to  make 
sure  that  his  efforts  along  some  lines  are  not  utterly 
lost,  should  undertake  to  explore  carefully,  section  by 
section,  children's  minds  with  all  the  tact  and  inge- 
nuity he  can  command  and  acquire,  to  determine  exactly 
what  is  already  known.  (4)  The  concepts  that  are 
most  common  in  the  children  of  a  given  locality  are  the 
earliest  to  be  acquired,  while  the  rarer  ones  are  later." 
Some  of  the  striking  per  cents  of  ignorance  of  the 
Boston  children  are  as  follows :  — 


Robin 

.    60.5 

Ankles 

.        .        .    65.5 

Pig             .        . 

•    47-5 

Elbows 

.        .        .    25.0 

Chicken     . 

•    33-5 

Dew 

.    78.0 

Elm  tree    .        • 

•    91-5 

Woods 

.        •    53-5 

Wrist 

.    70.5 

HiU 

.    28.0 

DEVELOPMENT   OF    REASONING 

The  beginning  of  practical  reasoning  is  found,  physio- 
logically, in  the  instinctive  tendency  to  do  under  simi- 
lar conditions  what  has  been  done  previously  with 
favorable  results,  and  to  refrain  from  doing  what  has 
brought  unfavorable  results.  Ajchild,  when  uncomfort- 
able, instinctively  cries,  and  after  a  few  months,  if  a 
continuation  and  increase  of  crying  effort  has  always 
been  followed  by  some  one's  coming  to  the  rescue,  habit 
establishes  this  method  of  obtaining  relief.  Some 
months  later  the  child  not  only  has  this  physiological 
tendency,  but  he  is  conscious  of  crying  as  one  method 
of  getting  things,  in  much  the  same  way  that  he  is  con- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   INTELLECT  2^5 

scious  of  reaching,  as  a  means  of  getting  objects.  A 
year  or  two  later  the  child  may  be  so  conscious  of  cry- 
ing as  a  means  that  has  secured  desired  ends,  that  he 
makes  the  cry  with  a  purpose,  instead  of  merely  allow- 
ing it  free  course  or  increasing  the  instinctive  tendency 
to  cry.  In  this  the  child's  reasoning  is  not  much 
beyond  that  of  an  intelligent  dog  that  lies  down,  rolls 
over,  or  "  speaks  "  for  a  piece  of  bread. 

In  all  the  child's  experiences  during  the  first  few 
years  as  he  learns  to  reach  for  things,  Icjgep  them  from 
falling,  maintain  his  own  equilibrium  in  various  positions, 
walk,  climb,  fall  without  getting  hurt,  avoid  the  stove, 
use  a  spoon,  or  pile  up  blocks,  instinct  is  the  basis  of  the 
practical  reason  which  is  developing  in  a  remarkable 
degree. 

On  the  conscious  side  he  is  guided  by  sensations, 
percepts,  and  images  of  particular  experiences  that  were 
like  those  now  occurring.  He  usually  knows  practically 
that  things  have  to  be  held  or  something  put  under 
them  or  they  will  fall,  by  the  middle  of  the  second  year ; 
but  it  is  many  years  before  he  actually  thinks  the  gen- 
eral truth,  "unsupported  bodies  fall,"  though  he  soon 
has  representations  of  particular,  unsupported  bodies  fall- 
ing. Hence,  though  children  make  practical  inferences 
at  an  early  age,  it  is  often  a  long  time  before  they  reason 
in  a  general  and  abstract  way. 

As  saon  as  children  begin  to  learn  language  they  are 
implicitly  generalizing,  classifying,  and  reasoning  as 
they  apply  the  words  to  new  objects.  Probably  not 
until  between  three  and  four  years,  of  age  do  children 
begin  to  consciously  and  explicitly  generalize,  and  then 
the  generalization  consists,  at  first,  of  several   similar 


2/6  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

particulars,  as  the  following  remarks  of  a  little  girl 
when  about  three  and  a  half  years  old  indicate.  After 
having  often  asked  and  been  answered  as  to  where  vari- 
ous things  came  from,  she  asked,  "  Where  did  I  come 
from?"  and  was  answered,  ''You  grew."  Later  she 
asked  :  '*  Where  did  papa  come  from  ?  "  "  Where  did 
mamma  come  from.?"  "Where  did  grandma  come 
from  ? "  Later  when  told  the  baby  had  two  legs,  she 
asked  :  *'  How  many  legs  has  papa  }  "  "  How  many  legs 
has  mamma  .-* "  and  so  on  for  the  several  members  of 
the  family.  At  this  time  general  statements  did  not 
satisfy  her.  When  told  she  did  things  for  papa,  she 
asked,  "What  do  I  do  for  you.?"  and  would  not  be 
satisfied  with  the  answer,  "  Lots  of  things,"  till  a  par- 
ticular thing,  "You  get  the  paper  for  me,"  was  named. 
A  few  days  later  such  remarks  as  the  following  were 
common,  "When  I  get  big  I  will  go  to  the  gymna- 
sium, the  library,  the  normal  school,  kindergarten  and 
lots  of  places,''  showing  that  her  ideas  were  getting 
slightly  broader  and  more  general  than  the  particulars 
named. 

A  little  later  a  conscious  attempt  to  generalize  and 
classify  was  indicated  by  the  following,  "The  coffee 
pot  won't  break,  but  the  cup  will  break  and  the  saucer 
will  break  and  the  sauce  dish  will  break,"  etc.  The 
crudeness  of  her  ideas,  however,  was  shown  by  the  fact 
that  when  questioned,  she  said  that  the  silver  sugar- 
bowl  and  pitcher,  and  even  a  spoon,  would  break, 
notwithstanding  she  had  often  dropped  spoons  without 
their  breaking.  Practically,  she  handled  cups  and 
spoons  differently;  but  when  she  talked  of  them  con- 
sciously, no  memory  of  different  experiences  with  them 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         277 

occurred  to  her  to  prevent  her  putting  them  both  in 
the  class  of  breakables. 

In  all  the  earlier  attempts  at  reasoning,  images  of 
past  experiences  compose  most  of  the  ''  train  of  reason- 
ing," and  personal  actions  or  commands  to  self  are  trans- 
ferred to  others,  or  of  others  to  self,  as  the  following 
examples  illustrate.  To  papa,  "  You  eat  something  else 
first,  then  you  can  have  some  cake."  Having  been  told 
that  she  could  have  something  when  it  was  noon,  she 
later  asked,  "  Has  noon  gone  ? "  —  "  No,  noon  is  com- 
ing."—"Has  noon  footies.?"  — *'No."  — "How  does 
the  noon  come,  then  ? "  perhaps  thinking  vaguely  of 
other  ways  of  coming,  as  by  means  of  wheels.  It  was 
explained  to  her  that  we  called  it  noon  when  the  sun 
got  up  high  so  we  had  to  look  up  straight  to  see  it. 
Several  times  after  that  on  cloudy  days  she  said  at  din- 
ner that  it  was  not  noon,  for  she  could  not  see  the  sun, 
which  shows  how  largely  her  "thoughts"  consisted  of 
definite  sensations  and  images.  One  day  the  follow- 
ing conversation  between  her  and  her  father  occurred  : 
"When  I  get  big,  I  will  pop  the  corn  and  you  won't 
have  to  do  it,  will  you.!*"  —  "No."  —  "You  will  be  a 
little  girl  then,  won't  you  ? "  —  "  No."  —  "  Yes,  you  will." 
She  had  previously  learned  that  she  would  get  big,  and 
that  papa  had  been  little,  and  she  had  often  changed 
places  with  others,  as,  "You  hide  now,  and  I'll  find  you," 
and  so  she  probably  pictured  herself  as  a  big  man  pop- 
ping corn,  and  papa  as  a  little  girl  standing  by  as  she 
was  then. 

The  child  is  continually  gaining  new  truths  that  are 
general  in  the  sense  that  they  can  be  applied  to  a  num- 
ber of   particulars ;    his  conceptions  are    increasing  in 


2/8  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

number,  and  passing  from  the  first  to  the  second  stage 
of  definiteness  as  he  becomes  conscious  of  common  char- 
acteristics and  important  differences  in  various  classes 
of  objects;  and  he  is  continually  trying  to  find  out  and 
apply  general  truths,  though  he  often  discovers  that 
their  application  is  more  limited  than  he  expected,  as 
when  he  goes  out  in  the  rain  so  he  will  grow,  or  plants 
money  or  a  ring  expecting  it  to  produce  more. 

In  the  following  from  a  boy  of  four  who  has  an  unu- 
sual tendency  to  generalize,  the  induction  seemed  to  be 
conscious  :  "  All  things  that  will  run,  like  water  and 
milk,  will  wet,  won't  they,  papa?" 

The  child  gets  his  general  truths  (i)  from  practical 
experiences,  without  being  conscious  of  them  as  gen- 
eral truths ;  (2)  from  adults,  perhaps  in  answers  to  such 
questions  as  :  *'  Where  do  apples  come  from  ?  "  "  What 
are  you  putting  that  pie  in  the  stove  for?"  "What 
is  it  made  of?"  "What  makes  flowers  grow?" 
and  (3)  from  his  own  generalizations  and  inductions, 
though  these  are  often  more  a  recognition  of  similarity 
of  particulars  than  genuine  abstract  generalizations. 
In  other  words,  he  goes  from  one  particular  to  another, 
instead  of  reaching  a  generalization  inductively,  then 
applying  it  deductively  as  does  the  logician.  For  ex- 
ample, a  boy  of  five  who  saw  white  caps  in  the  water 
overflowing  a  meadow,  and  asked,  "  Is  there  soap  under 
every  one  of  those  waves  ? "  evidently  remembered  other 
appearances  Hke  that,  produced  by  soap  in  water,  and 
thought  of  the  same  cause  in  this  case  without  going 
through  any  such  logical  course  of  reasoning  as  the 
following :  (i)  (inductive)  "  I  have  observed  such  appear- 
ances produced  in  water  by  soap  and  by  nothing  else. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT 


279 


What  is  true  of  the  cases  I  have  observed  is  true  of  all ; 
therefore,  such  white  stuff  on  the  water  is  always  pro- 
duced by  soap."  (2)  (deductive)  ''White  stuff  on  the 
water  is  always  caused  by  soap ;  that  water  has  white 
stuff  on  it,  therefore  there  must  be  soap  in  it." 

Whatever  the  source  of  the  general  truth  involved  in 
a  child's  reasoning,  he  is  likely  to  apply  it  not  only  to 
the  class  of  objects  or  conditions  to  which  it  belongs, 
but  also  to  others,  and  many  of  his  mistakes  in  reason- 
ing are  due  to  this  fact.  This  is  not  because  his  gener- 
alizations are  so  wide,  as  one  might  think,  but  because 
they  are  so  indefinite  and  undiscriminating,  as  are  also 
the  concepts  with  which  they  are  concerned ;  hence  as 
soon  as  he  notes  similarity  to  something  familiar,  and 
pictures  what  was  true  of  it,  he  expects  that  the  same 
will  be  true  of  what  seems  like  it.  This  is  true  even 
when  the  similarity  is  only  in  name.  For  example,  a 
little  girl  of  five,  who  had  borrowed  an  eraser  of  a  young 
lady  several  times,  was  told  that  a  plant  in  the  window 
was  a  rubber  plant,  when  she  quickly  exclaimed,  ''  Oh, 
that's  why  you  always  have  so  many  rubbers,  isn't  it }  " 

In  other  instances  the  characteristic  to  which  the  truth 
is  attached  is  not  an  essential  one ;  hence  the  truth  is 
wrongly  and  often  too  narrowly  applied,  as  when  a  boy 
of  eight  said,  "  You  should  not  call  him  Mr.,  he  is  not 
married  yet."  In  reality  this  and  many  similar  mis- 
takes come  from  too  wide  a  generalization  previously 
made,  which  in  this  case  probably  was,  women  who 
are  married  change  their  title ;  hence  all  persons  do  so. 

The  numerous  mistakes  in  reasoning  that  a  child  / 
makes  often  lead  to  his  being  laughed  at,  and  this  / 
tends  to  discourage  him  somewhat  in  original  thinking, 


28o  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

and  to  make  him  rely  more  upon  others  for  his  general 
truths. 
mJJ^^.„  j^^  When  he  enters  school  the  conditions  are  usually 
unfavorable  for  developing  his  power  and  tendency  to 
reason.  Before  this,  his  practical  reason  was  exercised 
in  his  plays  and  experiences  with  real  objects  and  situa- 
tions, and  his  conclusions  were  usually  of  immediate 
value  to  him.  Though  some  of  his  reasoning  had  been 
conscious,  and  some  of  his  thinking  animated  by  pure 
curiosity,  yet  much  of  it  had  been  influenced  by  practical 
interest  of  some  kind,  while  nearly  all  of  it  had  been 
concerned  with  persons,  things,  and  incidents  in  his 
immediate  environment.  In  school,  conscious  reason- 
ing is  usually  appealed  to,  and  there  are  almost  no 
opportunities  for  the  child  to  use  his  practical  reason  in 
doing  things.  The  school  studies,  especially  arithmetic, 
are  supposed  to  be  adapted  to  the  development  of  the 
child's  reason  ;  but  the  appeal  is  almost  wholly  to  con- 
scious reasoning,  which,  unaided  by  the  practical  reason 
and  the  stimulus  of  interest  in  the  conclusions  that 
always  accompanies  reasoning  in  acts  instead  of  in 
thought,  is  not  very  vigorous. 

His  arithmetical  thinking  is  also  very  imperfect 
because  it  is  not  usually  appealed  to  sufficiently  through 
the  senses  and  through  images  of  definite  individual 
experiences,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  naturally 
occupy  a  large  place  in  a  child's  reasoning.  So  many 
truths  are  presented  to  him,  and  they  are  applied  so 
often  without  the  results  or  conclusions  having  any 
bearing  upon  his  present  actions,  that  he  does  not 
care  particularly  what  the  truth  is,  or  how  it  is  applied, 
providing  he  can  say  or  do  what  will  satisfy  the  teacher. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         28 1 

In  short,  the  effect  of  school  life  is  usually  inimical  to 
the  activity  of  reasoning,  at  least  for  a  time. 

The  ordinary  child  in  the  public  school  exercises  his 
practical  reason  less  in  the  first  half-dozen  years  of 
school  life  than  does  the  ordinary  street  urchin.  Yet 
the  schoolboy  acquires  a  great  many  valuable  concepts 
and  general  truths,  and  forms  habits  of  orderly  analysis 
and  synthesis  which  enable  him,  when  his  reason 
awakens  to  full  activity  again  (as  it  is  likely  to  do  in  his 
teens),  to  far  surpass  the  street  urchin,  not  only  in  more 
abstract  reasoning,  but  with  some  practice,  in  the  reason- 
ing involved  in  practical  affairs.  The  training  in  the 
school  is  not,  therefore,  valueless,  but  it  produces  a  break 
in  the  development  of  reasoning  that  is  sometimes  never 
even  apparently  repaired. 

Naturally,  reasoning  is  first  instinctive,  sensory,  and 
practical,  then  conscious,  imaginative,  and  individual, 
and  finally  abstract,  analytic,  and  general.  The  school 
unsuccessfully  seeks  to  develop  the  last  form  of  reason- 
ing before  the  others,  which  are  a  necessary  basis  for  it, 
are  sufficiently  developed. 

After  about  twelve  years  of  age,  a  child's  interests 
usually  broaden  so  that  he  is  no  longer  almost  wholly 
concerned  with  his  own  affairs  and  with  particular  results, 
but  begins  to  develop  a  social  and  speculative  interest 
in  groups  of  persons  and  classes  of  objects  and  events. 
By  this  time  the  child  has  also  acquired  enough  con- 
cepts and  general  truths,  together  with  the  power  of 
analyzing  and  discriminating  difference  and  likeness,  so 
that  he  now  has  the  power  as  well  as  the  impulse  to 
reason  in  a  general  and  abstract  way  concerning  persons 
in  history,  words  in  language,  and  things  in  science. 


282 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


What  is  needed  more  than  anything  else  to  develop 
the  reasoning  power  of  children  in  school  is  that 
they  shall  have  more  opportunity  to  work  out  for 
themselves  methods  of  doing  things  which  they  are 
immediately  interested  in  doing,  and  more  practice  in 
discovering  the  results  of  particular  acts  and  conditions, 
before  they  are  expected  to  reason  in  an  abstract  way 
about  classes  of  things  in  which  they  have  no  immediate 
or  practical  interest.  It  is  also  important,  especially  in 
arithmetic,  that  they  shall  have  much  practice  in  apply- 
ing general  truths  to  various  classes  of  problems,  with- 
out anything  to  show  them  which  general  truth  will  fit 
each  particular  case.  In  other  words,  their  need  is  not 
more  general  truths,  but  more  practice  in  discerning 
essential  characteristics  and  applying  truths. 


Exercises  for  Students 

1.  If  similarity  in  mental  processes  helps  one  person  in  under- 
standing another,  are  teachers  who  are  studying  some  new  sub- 
ject likely  to  succeed  better  in  teaching  than  those  who  are  not  1 
Why? 

2.  Give  a  number  of  illustrations  of  special  training  that  does  or 
does  not  increase  general  mental  power. 

3.  As  a  means  of  showing  that  our  perceptions  become  definite 
regarding  familiar  things,  note  the  fact  that  a  figure  like  the  accom- 
panying one  may  be  seen  in  two  or  three  definite 
and  familiar  ways,  but  not  in  any  intermediate 
or  confused  way.  Note,  also,  how  easy  it  is  to 
hear  sounds  and  nonsense  syllables  as  words. 
Is  this  true  to  the  same  extent  of  children  ? 

4.  Give  illustrations  of  differences  in  the  dis- 
crimination of  individuals,. and  indicate  how  far 
they  may  be  explained  by  special  knowledge  and 
practice. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   INTELLECT  283 

5.  Test  first  or  second  grade  children  and  adults  by  having  them 
make  a  straight  line,  then  a  word  as  many  times  as  possible  in  a 
minute,  and  note  the  difference  in  rate  of  activity  and  the  causes 
of  the  difference. 

6.  Report  tests  and  observations  showing  difference  in  mental 
grasp  of  children  and  adults. 

7.  Give  illustrations  showing  that  differences  in  the  perceptive 
power  of  adults  may  be  as  great  as  are  to  be  found  between  children 
and  adults. 

8.  Why  do  people  who  have  never  studied  drawing  usually  say 
that  a  circle  looks  the  same  in  all  positions  ?  Give  other  illustra- 
tions of  the  ignoring  of  variations  in  sensations,  in  perceiving  objects 
as  the  same. 

9.  Have  students  experiment  and  report  on  weight  and  size 
illusions. 

10.  Show  children  successively  sticks  of  the  following  length  in 
inches :  i,  i|,  2,  2^,  3,  3 1,  4,  4,  4,  4,  and  see  if  they  get  the  sugges- 
tion, that  each  line  is  to  be  larger  than  each  of  the  preceding.  Show 
a  series  of  lines  drawn  on  paper  of  the  above  lengths,  and  ask  the 
children  to  point  to  one  three  inches  long,  then  just  as  the  child  is 
doing  so,  say,  "  Are  you  sure  you  are  right  ?  "  Report  other  obser- 
vations and  experiments  showing  the  greater  suggestibility  of  chil- 
dren as  compared  with  adults. 

11.  Show  to  adults  for  a  moment  the  name  of  your  city  or  some 
other  familiar  word,  with  some  letters  omitted  and  similar  ones  sub- 
stituted, and  see  if  familiarity  with  the  word  does  not  lead  to  error. 
Report  other  observations  and  experiments  showing  that  knowledge 
and  habit  may  lead  to  error. 

12.  To  get  an  idea  of  how  large  a  part  purpose  plays  in  percep- 
tion, look  at  a  book  with  one  after  another  of  the  following  purposes  : 
to  know  the  name  and  author,  to  know  regarding  the  capitalization 
of  letters,  the  size  of  letters,  spacing  and  design  on  the  back,  to 
determine  the  quality  of  the  binding  as  to  material  and  color,  to  see 
if  the  book  is  perfectly  new  and  clean,  to  see  if  its  edge  is  smooth 
and  straight  so  it  can  be  used  in  place  of  a  ruler,  to  determine  its 
size  in  inches,  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  the  paper.  Find  other  illus- 
trations of  how  the  purpose  in  perceiving,  rather  than  the  mere  power 
of  discrimination,  determines  what  shall  be  perceived. 


284  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

13.  Is  there  any  relation  between  manual  training  and  sense  train- 
ing ?     Explain  fiilly. 

14.  Give  illustrations  of  the  imaging  power  of  children. 

15.  Is  your  image  of  a  wooded  hill  that  you  have  seen  many  times 
at  various  seasons  of  the  year  as  definite  and  vivid  as  some  land- 
scapes you  have  seen  only  a  few  times  ?  Give  other  illustrations 
showing  how  increased  experience  may  lead  to  less  definiteness  and 
vividness  of  images. 

16.  Report  from  experience,  observation,  or  reading,  instances  of 
letters  or  numbers,  which  always  call  up  images  of  certain  colors  or 
forms. 

17.  Is  it  better  to  tell  children  of  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  grades 
something  you  wish  them  to  remember,  or  to  have  them  read  it  ? 
Why  ? 

18.  Try  with  children  and  adults  some  such  experiment  as  the 
following.  Say,  "  Make  a  dot  two  inches  from  the  top  of  the  page 
and  one  inch  from  the  left  edge,  then  from  it  draw  a  line  to  the  right 
two  inches  long,  then  downward  three  inches,  then  to  the  left  one 
inch,  then  upward  an  inch,  then  to  the  dot  first  made,"  and  see  how 
well  they  follow  directions,  or  say,  "  Think  of  a  square  with  a 
triangle  on  top  with  point  upward,  a  circle  underneath,  and  an  oblong 
on  each  side  with  ends  next  the  side  of  the  square." 

19.  Illustrate  from  school  work,  successes  or  failures  of  children 
due  to  good  or  poor  constructive  imagination. 

20.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  creative  imagination  of  always 
telling  children  not  only  what  to  do,  but  also  just  how  to  do  it  ? 

21.  Mention  a  number  of  exercises  that  you  think  would  give  good 
training  to  the  creative  imagination,  in  which  you  recognize  a  stage 
of  imitation  and  practice,  and  another  stage  of  free  creation,  indicat- 
ing the  grade  to  which  these  exercises  would  be  most  suitable. 

22.  Find  how  many  words  a  child  of  two  uses,  as  an  indication  of 
the  number  of  concepts  he  has. 

23.  Attempt  to  determine  what  concepts  of  common  things,  of 
the  second  degree  of  definiteness,  a  child  of  from  four  to  six  has. 

24.  It  will  be  interesting  for  students  to  try  to  gain  some  idea 
of  how  many  concepts  they  have  by  counting  the  words  familiar  to 
them  on  every  tenth  or  hundredth  page  of  a  dictionary,  and  estimat- 
ing tlieir  total  vocabulary. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTELLECT         285 

25.  Give  a  number  of  instances  of  childish  reasoning  from  obser- 
vation or  reading,  and  explain  the  modes  of  reaching  a  conclusion 
in  each  case. 

26.  Give  illustrations  of  work  in  school  studies,  so  planned  that 
the  reasoning  may  be  simply  a  means  to  an  end  the  child  desires  to 
reach. 

27.  Give  such  problems  as  these  to  children,  and  explain  why 
they  make  mistakes.  "  A  boy  walked  directly  east  three  miles,  then 
directly  west  three  miles,  how  far  was  he  from  where  he  started  .'*  " 
'•  If  a  stalk  of  corn  two  feet  high  grows  two  feet  in  the  month  of 
July,  how  much  will  a  peach  tree  three  feet  high  grow  in  the  same 
time  ? " 

28.  Algebra  may  be  described  as  arithmetic  generalized.  Why 
is  it  better  suited  for  older  pupils  than  arithmetic  ? 

29.  Have  children  find  out  what  you  are  thinking  of  by  asking 
questions  that  you  answer  by  yes  or  no.  Notice  how  many  of  their 
questions  are  particular  or  ignore  former  answers,  and  hence  show 
lack  of  conceptional  thought  and  reasoning. 

30.  Tell  a  story,  such  as  the  following,  with  many  contradictions 
in  it,  and  ask  children  to  give  their  reasons  for  thinking  it  is  or  is 
not  true.  Notice  in  how  few  cases  they  put  parts  together  so  as 
to  show  their  logical  contradictions.  "  The  water  would  not  be  very 
warm  if  it  was  winter  "  is  a  logical  reason,  while  '*  His  father  would 
not  have  praised  him  "  is  merely  reasoning  according  to  probabilities. 

A  Boy's  First  Fish 

One  winter  afternoon  a  boy  went  fishing  in  a  lake  a  short  distance 
from  his  home.  He  had  a  bent  pin  for  a  hook,  and  a  thread  for  a 
line,  which  he  fastened  to  a  good  strong  pole.  As  soon  as  he  threw 
the  hook  in,  a  fish  took  it  in  his  mouth  and  started  downstream. 
The  boy  began  to  pull,  but  his  foot  slipped  and  he  fell  into  the  river. 
He  was  frightened  at  first,  but  when  he  found  that  the  river  was 
shallow  and  the  water  very  warm,  he  did  not  care,  but  held  to  the 
pole.  He  waded  to  the  shore  and  pulled  till  the  pole  bent  and 
almost  broke  before  he  could  draw  the  fish  out  of  the  lake.  When  he  got 
it  out  he  saw  that  it  was  about  eight  inches  long  and  he  was  very  much 
pleased.     He  tried  to  catch  more,  but  they  would  not  take  the  hook. 


286  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

His  hands  got  cold  in  the  wintry  wind,  so  he  started  home  with  the 
fish.  He  got  very  tired  carrying  the  heavy  fish  so  far,  but  forgot  all 
about  it  when  he  got  home,  and  his  papa  praised  him  for  holding  to 
the  pole,  and  his  mamma  said  the  fish  would  make  several  nice  meals 
for  all  of  them. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  intellectual  development  and  training,  see 
besides  psychologies,  Baldwin,  Vol.  I,  pp.  301-332 ;  Hinsdale, 
Studies  m  Education,  chaps,  ii  and  iii ;  Judd,  chaps,  i  and  ii, 
and  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIH,  pp.  128-142  ;  Compayre,  Vol.  I,  chaps, 
vi  and  vii,  Vol.  H  ;  Thorndike,  Human  Nature  Club,  chap,  xv ; 
Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  60-65  ;  Thorndike  and  Woodworth, 
Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  247-261,  384-395,  553-564;  Aiken, 
"Methods  of  Mind  Training";  Allen,  Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV, 
pp.  237-254;  Bergstrom,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  256-369; 
Swift,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  3-22 ;  Hugh,  Ped.  Sejn.,  Vol.  V, 
pp.  599-605  ;  Bryan  and  Harter,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  25- 
53,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  345-375  ;  Andrews,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIV, 
pp.  121-149;  Johnson,  Vale  Studies,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  51-103  ;  Swift, 
Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  201-251. 

On  the  senses  and  early  intellectual  development,  consult  Preyer, 
Shinn,  Tracy,  Moore. 

On  discrimination,  rate  of  mental  activity,  perception,  suggestion,  and 
illusions,  read  Kirkpatrick,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  567-577, 
Vol.  VII,  pp.  274-280;  parts  of  Gilbert,  Yale  Studies,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  40-100 ;  Iowa  Univ.  Studies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-84 ;  Christo- 
pher and  Smedley's  Reports  oj  Child  Study  Investigations  to  the 
Chicago  Board  of  Education ;  Judd,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  IX,  pp. 
27-39;  Small,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  176-220;  AT.  IV.  Mo., 
Vol.  IX,  pp.  134-135;  Sidis,  Psychology  of  Suggestion ;  Pills- 
bury,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  318-396;  Bolton,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  537-548 ;  Jastrow,  Fact  and  Fable  in 
Psychology,  pp.  106-136,  275-295 ;  Binet,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol. 
VIII,  pp.  610-616;  Pillsbury,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp. 
315-393  ;  Dressier,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  343-363 ;  Sea- 
shore, Yale  Studies,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  1-67 ;  Iowa  Studies,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  1-64. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  INTELLECT  28/ 

On  mental  images,  see  Galton,  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  Vol.  XV,  p.  572 ;  Vol. 
XVIII,  p.  64,  or  consult  his  Hiiman  Faculty;  Patrick,  Pop. 
Set.  Mo.,  Vol.  XXXIX,  p.  761 ;  Kirkpatrick,  Science.  October, 
1893  ;  Binet,  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  Vol.  XLI,  pp.  60-70;  Bryan, 
N.  E.  A.,  1893,  pp.  779-781  ;  Talbot,  A?n.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  414-417;  Hall,  F.  H., /r.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  214-223; 
N.  E.  A.,  1897,  pp.  621-628  ;  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  297-307  ; 
Wylie,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  127-160;  Jastrow,  Fact  and 
Fable  in  Psychology,  pp.  337-370;  Philipps,  Am.  Jr.  Psych., 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  506-527;  Wolfe,  Afn.Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  IX,  pp. 
137-166. 

On  memory,  see  Colgrove,  especially  chap,  v  ;  Eldridge-Green, 
Memory  and  its  Cultivation,  Part  I,  chaps,  vii  and  viii  and 
Part  II  ;  Waldstein,  The  Subconscious  Self;  Bolton,  Am.  Jr. 
Psych.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  298-301  ;  Shaw,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 
61-78;  Kirkpatrick,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  602-609;  Jastrow, 
Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  442-452 ;  Patrick,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  463-474 ; 
Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  pp.  58-61  ;  Jacobs,  Mind,  Vol.  XII, 
pp.  75-82. 

On  associative,  creative,  conceptive,  and  reasoning  activities  of 
children,  see  Bolton  and  Haskell,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  474- 
499 ;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  41-52  ;  Vol.  II,  pp.  43-61, 
373-387;  Royce,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  1 13-144;  Hall,  Ped. 
Sem.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  139-173;  Lindley,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  431-493;  Brown,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  358-396;  Gale, 
Jr.  Ch.  and  Adoles.,  July,  1902,  pp.  149-74;  Hancock,  Ed.  Rev., 
Vol.  XII,  pp.  260-268;  Learoyd,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp. 
86-90. 


CHAPTER   XV 
HEREDITY 

MEANING 


Heredity  is  the  term  applied  in  biology  to  the  pro- 
duction of  like  by  like.  The  fact  that  the  offspring  of 
plants  and  animals  always  belong  to  the  same  species 
as  their  parents,  is  named  if  not  explained  by  the  word 
"heredity."  When  the  term  is  used  by  stock-breeders 
and  students  of  man,  however,  it  has  a  m.ore  restricted 
meaning.  It  then  refers  not  merely  to  the  likeness  in 
species,  but  to  the  less-marked  characteristics  that  dis- 
tinguish different  breeds  or  families  of  the  same  species. 
A  negro's  child  is  not  merely  a  human  being,  but  he  is 
a  human  being  of  the  black  type.  A  Bach  is,  as  a  rule, 
not  merely  a  human  being,  a  Caucasian  and  a  German, 
but  also  a  Bach  in  the  sense  of  being  a  musical  genius. 
The  context  will  usually  show  whether  the  term  is  used 
in  the  narrower  or  the  broader  sense.  In  both  senses, 
the  laws  and  the  fundamental  phenomena  are  the  same. 
A  minute  cell  formed  by  the  union  of  a  cell  from  a 
male  with  the  cell  of  a  female  of  the  same  species 
develops  into  a  being  similar  to  its  ancestors,  both  near 
and  remote,  and  yet  not  exactly  like  any  one  of  them. 

The  characteristics  of  every  animal  and  person  are 
determined  not  only  by  the  union  of  cells  from  two  lines 
of  ancestry,  but  also  by  the  environment  which  begins 
u  289 


290  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

to  act  as  soon  as  the  embryo  is  formed,  and  continues  to 
mould  the  developing  organism  till  birth,  then  in  a  still 
greater  variety  of  ways  until  maturity.  The  changes 
produced  before  birth  are  often  very  marked,  since  a 
nervous  shock  to  a  mother  four  or  five  months  before 
the  birth  of  a  child  often  results  in  some  deformity  in 
the  child.  It  is  claimed  but  not  admitted  by  physicians 
that  the  physical  and  mental  condition  of  the  mother 
during  the  entire  time  the  child  is  carried,  affects  its 
development  in  a  marked  degree.  The  special  charac- 
teristics this  gives  a  child  are  congenital,  but  not,  prop- 
erly speaking,  hereditary.  In  common  language  they 
are  often  spoken  of  as  hereditary,  but  in  the  scientific 
sense  only  those  characteristics  that  result  from  the 
union  of  two  germ  cells  are  hereditary. 

GENERAL  TRUTHS  OR  LAWS  OF  HEREDITY 

(1)  Children  usually  resemble  their  parents.  A  child 
is,  however,  never  exactly  like  either  the  father  or  the 
mother,  nor  does  he  possess  the  sum  of  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  both  or  an  equal  fusion,  but  surely  some 
of  each.  The  prominent  qualities  of  one  parent  or  the 
other,  rather  than  a  fusion  of  those  of  both,  frequently 
appear  in  the  child.  For  this  reason  we  find  black- 
haired  and  red-haired  children  in  the  same  family, 
instead  of  all  with  hair  of  an  intermediate  color.  The 
child  usually  has  also  characteristics  not  possessed  by 
either  of  his  parents.  The  resemblance  to  a  grand- 
parent or  even  a  more  remote  ancestor,  or  to  a  relative 
not  in  the  direct  line  of  descent,  as  uncle  or  cousin,  may 
be  more  marked  than  to  the  parents. 

(2)  This  suggests  the  truth   that  inheritance  is  not 


HEREDITY  29 1 

simply  fro^n  parents,  but  from  the  two  lines  of  ancestry 
of  the  two  families.  This  view  is  supported  by  the  fact 
that  stock-breeders  cannot  predict  the  characteristics  of 
the  offspring  of  mongrels  or  mixed  breeds,  while  they 
can  of  those  known  to  have  been  of  pure  blood  for 
many  generations.  Going  back  a  generation  at  a  time 
one  finds  the  number  of  ancestors  increasing  geometri- 
cally as  follows:  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  etc.,  so  that  in  the  tenth 
generation  there  are  a  thousand  ancestors.  This  shows 
why,  when  there  are  various  breeds  or  famihes  repre- 
sented, it  is  impossible  to  predict  the  result  of  the 
union.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  ancestors  are  all 
from  one  line,  the  results  can  be  predicted  with  some 
accuracy.  So  far  as  the  facts  are  known  it  appears 
that  the  offspring  of  two  parents  of  different  Hnes  of 
pure  breed  will,  other  things  being  equal,  most  resemble 
the  one  that  has  been  kept  pure  the  greatest  number  of 
generations. 

In  the  human  race  there  is  far  less  pureness  of  breed 
than  in  animals.  A  practically  pure  breed  of  animals, 
pairing  every  year,  can  be  established  in  five  or  six 
years ;  while  to  establish  a  pure  breed  of  human  beings, 
even  if  a  regular  plan  were  followed  as  is  done  with 
domestic  animals,  would  require  a  century  and  a  half. 
Again,  since  human  beings  move  about  much  more  than 
other  animals,  the  people  of  any  given  locality  are,  as  a 
rule,  of  much  less  pure  blood  than  the  various  species 
of  animals  in  the  same  region.  Migration,  wars,  and 
inter-marriage  have  resulted  in  the  mixing  of  blood 
from  almost  all  portions  of  the  globe.  The  results  of 
heredity  in  human  beings  are  therefore,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  infinitely  more  difficult   to    predict   than  in 


292  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

animals ;  yet  the  results  of  union  among  distinct  races, 
such  as  the  Caucasian  and  Negro,  are  fixed  and  well 
known. 

(3)  There  is  a  tendency  to  return  to  the  normal  type. 
For  example,  even  when  both  parents  vary  from  the 
normal  in  the  same  way,  the  offspring  usually  do  not 
show  as  much  variation  as  the  parents.  The  children 
of  a  large  father  and  mother  are  usually  larger  than  the 
normal,  but  smaller  than  their  parents  ;  and  children  of  a 
small  father  and  mother  are  usually  smaller  than  normal 
but  larger  than  their  parents.  The  son  of  an  unusually 
strong  or  brilliant  man  is  likely  to  be  less  strong  or 
brilliant  than  himself  ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  son  of 
a  man  diseased  or  of  unusually  small  capacity  is  likely 
to  be  more  healthy  and  intelligent  than  himself. 

(4)  Heredity  is  often  of  a  general  capacity  rather  than 
of  a  specific  ability.  For  example,  the  son  of  a  great 
scientist  may  becom.e  a  great  writer  or  attain  great  suc- 
cess in  business  or  politics.  Moreover,  nervous  irregu- 
larity in  the  parents  may  appear  in  the  children  in  the 
form  of  imbecility,  insanity,  or  criminality. 

(5)  Where  there  is  close  in-breeding,  it  has  been 
thought  that  weakness,  especially  mental,  is  Ukely  to 
appear,  and  some  of  the  royal  families  that  have  inter- 
married and  degenerated  are  cited  as  evidence.  Recent 
writers,  however,  are  inclined  to  think  that  where  weak- 
ness results  from  in-breeding,  it  is  because  weakness 
already  exists  and  is  merely  increased  by  the  process, 
while  strong  qualities  are  just  as  surely  perpetuated  and 
increased.  The  Jews  have  not  developed  mental  weak- 
ness, though  history  shows  no  other  such  instance  of 
human  in-breeding  carried  on  for  thousands  of  years. 


HEREDITY  293 

(6)  The  offspHng  of  parents  of  pure  blood  sometimes 
show  characteristics  of  the  remote  ancestors  of  the  breed ; 
this  is  known  as  atavism  or  reversion.  For  example, 
pigeons,  like  the  original  blue-rock  pigeons  from  which 
all  are  descended,  are  occasionally  found  among  the 
offspring  of  fancy  breeds  that  ordinarily  breed  true. 
Reversion  is  more  likely  to  occur  when  distinct  breeds 
are  crossed.  For  example,  mules,  which  result  from 
crossing  the  horse  and  the  ass,  often  have  stripes  similar 
to  those  of  their  zebra-like  common  ancestor. 

(7)  Not  all  hereditary  qualities  are  apparent  at  birth. 
There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  they  appear  at 
various  stages  of  development,  as  do  instincts,  especially 
at  the  time  of  puberty.  Physical  features,  and  mental 
and  moral  qualities  of  father  or  mother  hitherto  unno- 
ticed, often  becom.e  conspicuous  at  this  time.  It  is 
also  claimed  that  inherited  bodily  or  mental  disease 
frequently  appears  at  about  the  same  age  in  certain 
families. 

GENERAL  THEORY  OF  HEREDITY 

The  germ  cells  that  unite  to  form  the  embryo  of  a 
man  are  of  almost  microscopic  minuteness.  The  em- 
bryo can  at  first  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the 
embryo  of  a  rat  or  an  elephant,  yet  it  has  potentially 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  species  man.  Moreover, 
it  has  the  peculiarities  of  the  race,  nation,  and  family 
of  each  of  the  two  parents  from  whom  the  germ 
cells  came.  How  such  minute  portions  of  matter  can 
embody  all  the  characteristics  of  their  ancestors  and 
impose  these  characteristics  upon  all  the  nutriment  by 
which  their  size  is  increased  many  million  fold,  is  one  of 


294  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

the  greatest  marvels  of  nature  and  life.  Anything  that 
will  make  this  marvel  definitely  conceivable  is  therefore 
to  be  welcomed. 

If  we  accept  the  results  of  recent  experiments  show- 
ing the  exceeding  smallness  of  particles  of  matter,  we 
may  think  of  each  characteristic  of  each  tissue  (such 
as  bony  or  nervous)  and  of  each  organ  as  represented 
by  different  kinds  of  particles  of  matter  in  the  germ 
cells.  It  is  thus  possible  to  conceive  of  the  way  in 
which  the  characteristics  of  the  parents  may  be  trans- 
mitted to  their  descendants.  This  gives  a  very  crude 
theory,  however,  which  is  not  supported  by  observation 
and  experiment.  If  every  tissue  and  organ  must  con- 
tribute material  to  the  germ  cell,  we  should  expect  that 
the  child  of  a  man  who  had  lost  a  leg  or  an  arm  would 
lack  the  same  member,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Again, 
if  the  different  parts  of  an  embryo  are  formed  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  particles,  we  should  expect  that  if  an  embryo 
were  divided  that  a  complete  organism  could  not  develop 
from  one  of  the  parts.  It  has  been  found,  however, 
by  experiments  upon  frogs  and  other  of  the  lower 
animals,  that  the  fourth  of  the  embryo  (for  example, 
of  a  frog)  will,  under  favorable  conditions,  develop  into 
a  whole  animal  with  no  part  missing. 

Slight  changes  in  conditions,  such  as  turning  an 
embryo  over,  putting  it  in  a  new  medium,  subjecting 
it  to  a  different  temperature,  or  supplying  it  with  food 
differing  in  kind  or  amount  from  the  normal,  greatly 
modify  its  development.  For  example,  queen  bees 
are  the  result  of  rich  feeding,  and  experiment  shows 
that  as  high  as  90  per  cent  of  frogs'  eggs  may  develop 
into  females  if  the  embryos  are  richly  fed.     It  is,  there- 


HEREDITY  295 

fore,  improbable  that  the  characteristics  of  each  animal 
and  each  organ  are  determined  by  fundamentally  dif- 
ferent elementary  particles  of  which  the  germ  cells  are 
composed.  It  is  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there 
are  comparatively  few  varieties  of  particles,  and  that 
these  tend  to  combine  in  certain  ways  for  each  species, 
according  to  preestabUshed  affinities,  attractions,  and 
repulsions  that  are  modified  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
by  external  surroundings  of  the  embryo,  and  by  the 
relative  vigor  of  the  different  elements  of  the  two  germ 
cells  composing  it. 

The  chief  discussions  in  biology  during  the  last  decade 
have  centred  about  the  possibility  of  modifying  germ 
cells  through  modifications  of  body  cells.  Changes  in 
food,  exercise,  and  mode  of  life  may  make  great  changes 
in  an  animal  or  person  ;  but  whether  such  changes  mod- 
ify the  germ  cells  also,  so  that  descendants  will  have  the 
new  characteristics,  is  a  disputed  point.  For  example, 
if  a  son  is  born  to  a  man  at  twenty-five,  and  after  the 
father  has  spent  twenty  years  in  practice  to  develop  his 
musical  talents,  another  son  is  born,  will  the  last  son 
inherit  any  more  musical  abihty  than  the  first  one } 
Weismann,  who  has  been  the  leader  on  one  side  of  this 
controversy,  says  that  no  changes  that  take  place  in 
the  life  of  a  parent  can  modify  the  germ  cells  so  as 
to  affect  the  offspring.  Each  parent  transmits  to  his 
offspring  what  he  inherits,  but  not  what  he  acquires. 
If  this  be  true,  culture  cannot  be  directly  trans- 
mitted ;  each  new  generation  must  begin  where  the 
old  began,  and  if  it  advances  beyond  the  former,  it 
must  be  because  of  better  advantages  for  learning 
rather  than  because  of   inherited  ability.      According 


296  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

to  this  view,  acquired  weakness  of  body  or  mind  are 
also  non-transmissibie. 

In  the  biological  world,  progress  is  possible  according 
to  this  theory  because  no  two  individual  descendants  are 
exactly  alike,  and  because  the  members  of  each  new 
generation  that  are  best  suited  to  survive  under  certain 
constant  conditions,  are  the  ones  that  live  and  produce 
offspring,  while  the  others  die  or  produce  few  offspring. 
This  process  being  repeated  generation  after  generation, 
all  offspring  finally  come  to  have  the  favorable  character- 
istics in  a  marked  degree.  For  example,  of  a  dozen 
young  partridges,  the  ones  that  are  colored  most  nearly 
like  their  surroundings  are  likely  to  survive  and  produce 
descendants  with  similar  coloring.  Again,  the  most  fa- 
vorably colored  of  these  survive  and  produce,  and  thus 
after  many  generations  the  principle  of  natural  selection 
results  in  complete  color  adaptation  to  surroundings. 
When  a  breeder  of  fancy  pigeons  continues  to  breed 
only  those  having  certain  coloring,  the  results  are  simi- 
lar, only  in  this  case  it  is  human  instead  of  natural  selec- 
tion that  determines  the  type  of  pigeon  that  shall  survive. 

Instmcts  and  intelligence  are  modified  in  a  similar 
way.  For  instance,  only  those  young  partridges  that 
have  in  the  greatest  degree  the  tendency  to  remain  quiet 
when  danger  threatens,  are  likely  to  reach  maturity  and 
produce  offspring.  Natural  selection,  therefore,  has 
thus  determined  the  instinct  as  well  as  the  coloring  of 
the  partridge.  In  the  case  of  intelligence ,  the  results  are 
much  the  same.  Plasticity  or  ability  to  learn  is  unques- 
tionably favorable  to  survival ;  hence  the  young  animals 
that  learn  most  readily  are  likely  to  survive  and  produce 
descendants,  some   of  which   have   the   capacity   in   a 


HEREDITY  297 

greater  degree.  These  in  turn  survive,  and  thus  may 
natural  selection  alone  account  for  the  development  of 
intelligence  in  the  higher  animals  and  in  man.  To  them 
abihty  to  learn  in  infancy  is  more  advantageous  than 
to  knov/  unchangeably  many  favorable  modes  of  re- 
action. Thus  ability  to  learn  which  is  the  essence  of 
intelHgence  is  developed. 

This  question  of  inheritance  of  acquired  characteris- 
tics is  not  yet  settled  in  biology,  but  it  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  the  characteristics  that  a  parent  transmits 
are  chiefly  those  that  he  inherited,  and  that  the  character- 
istics acquired  by  the  parent  rarely,  if  ever,  so  affect  the 
germ  cells  as  to  be  transmitted  to  his  descendants.  In 
the  case  of  human  beings  if  there  is  any  transmission 
of  acquired  characteristics  by  germ  inheritance,  it  is 
probably  in  so  slight  a  degree  as  to  have  no  effect 
worthy  of  note,  unless  it  be  where  many  generations 
have  made  the  same  acquisitions.  Progress  in  civili- 
zation is  therefore  not  to  be  looked  for  in  greater  in- 
herited skill  or  intelligence. 

SOCIAL    HEREDITY 

The  acceptance  in  whole,  or  even  in  part,  of  Weis- 
mann's  theory  of  heredity  seems  at  first  to  make  the 
problem  of  the  improvement  of  the  human  race  an 
almost  hopeless  one,  since  each  generation  gets  no 
direct  benefit  from  the  improvement  of  the  preceding 
generation,  but  must  begin  just  where  it  did.  A  closer 
study,  however,  shows  that  the  chances  for  racial  im- 
provement are  just  as  good  on  this  theory  as  on  any  other. 
Capacity  for  education,  rather  than  increased  knowledge 
and  power  at  birth,  is  what  human  beings  need  in  order 


298  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

that  they  may  advance  ;  and  natural  selection  will  amply 
provide  for  this,  especially  in  these  days  of  rapid  change 
in  the  conditions  and  activities  of  life. 

The  other  factor  most  needed  for  racial  advancement 
is  a  vc\ort,  favorable  e^ivh-ojmieiit — greater  intellectual 
and  social  treasures  —  which  may  be  appropriated  by 
the  new  generations  without  the  toilsome  digging  re- 
quired by  their  predecessors.  Each  new  generation 
inherits,  not  only  the  wealth  and  knowledge,  but  all 
the  means  of  wealth  and  knowledge,  such  as  ma- 
chinery, industrial  and  commercial  organizations,  edu- 
cational and  scientific  institutions,  systemiS  and  methods, 
together  with  more  or  less  fixed  social  ideals,  customs, 
and  language.  Whether  a  man  inherits  the  minute 
structural  changes  produced  in  his  parents'  bodies  by 
what  they  did  before  his  conception,  is  a  matter  of 
little  moment  compared  with  his  inheritance  of  ca- 
pacity and  opportunity  for  using  all  the  accumulated 
results  of  the  experience  of  the  ages.  It  is  this  in- 
herited environment  in  which  he  is  to  grow,  and  upon 
which  he  is  to  feed,  that  chiefly  determines  the  amount 
and  direction  of  his  development.  All  the  conditions 
of  life  produced  by  civilization  constitute  what,  in  a 
very  general  way,  may  be  called  "  social  inheritance." 
Man  is  truly  ''the  heir  of  all  the  ages,"  and  each  gen- 
eration utilizes  what  has  been  produced  and  learned  by 
the  preceding.  The  social  heritage  of  an  individual 
consists  of  all  the  knowledge,  beliefs,  customs,  laws,  and 
language  of  the  nation,  community,  and  family  into 
which  he  is  born. 

Much  of  what  has  been  ascribed  to  physical  he- 
redity is,    in  reality,  due   partially  or  wholly   to  social 


HEREDITY  299 

heredity.  The  history  of  the  Jukes  family,  in  which 
it  is  shown  that  nearly  all  of  more  than  a  thousand 
descendants  of  one  man  were  criminals  or  paupers, 
proves  nothing  regarding  physical  heredity,  for  the 
family  was  for  many  years  almost  isolated  from  so- 
ciety ;  consequently,  the  factor  of  social  heredity  had 
the  fullest  chance  to  operate.  The  children  of  a  young 
couple  belonging  to  this  family  who  moved  into  another 
neighborhood,  and  thus  partially  got  the  benefit  of  a 
different  social  inheritance,  grew  up  much  as  other 
children  of  the  neighborhood.  The  records  of  chari- 
table societies  show  that  about  eighty-five  per  cent  of 
the  children  of  paupers  and  criminals  who  are  placed 
in  good  homes  at  an  early  age  become  good  citizens. 

Every  nation  and  every  family  possesses  a  wealth  of 
beliefs,  sentiments,  artistic  and  moral  ideals,  lore,  tradi- 
tions, and  customs  which  descend  to  the  children  by  an 
incontestible  law  of  entail.  Truly,  in  educating  a  child, 
we  should  begin  with  his  grandparents ;  for  he  will  in- 
evitably get  the  benefit  through  social  heredity  in  the 
form  of  family  customs,  habits,  and  traditions,  though 
probably  not  through  inherited  acquisitions. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1 .  Give  examples  of  heredity  in  both  the  broader  and  the  narrower 
meaning  of  the  word. 

2.  Illustrate  each  of  the  laws  of  heredity. 

3.  Indicate  how  such  characteristics  as  those  of  pointer  dogs, 
trotting  horses,  homing  pigeons,  could  have  developed  either  with 
or  without  the  inheritance  of  acquired  characteristics. 

4.  Imagine  a  company  of  people  of  a  civilized  country  placed  on 
an  island  without  tools  or  machines  of  any  kind,  and  think  how  long 
it  would  take  them  to  be  able  to  live  as  they  had  been  living.    Then 


300  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

imagine  a  company  of  children  of  civilized  people  left  without  a  lan- 
guage or  any  social  or  intellectual  knowledge,  as  well  as  without  the 
material  conveniences  of  civilization,  and  think  how  long  it  would 
take  them  and  their  descendants  to  reach  the  civilization  of  their 
parents. 

5.  Are  the  peculiarities  of  half-breeds  and  others  who  are  without 
a  country  or  people  of  their  own  due  chiefly  to  physical  or  to  social 
heredity  ? 

6.  What  is  the  effect  of  never  being  a  member  of  a  family,  as  in 
the  case  of  children  in  orphan  asylums  ?     Why  ? 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  theory  of  heredity,  see  Orr,  Theory  of  Development 
and  Inheritance ;  Brooks,  Heredity^  also  The  Foundations  of 
Zoology  ;  Weismann,  The  Germ-Plasm ;  Romanes,  An  Exa7ni- 
nation  of  Weis7nannism,  also  Darwin  and  After  Darwin, 
Vol.  IL 

For  facts  regarding  heredity  and  environment,  consult  Ribot,  Hered- 
ity;  '^isheX^  Marriage  and  Heredity ;  works  on  criminals,  espe- 
cially Morrison,  f7ive7iile  Offe7iders ;  Winship  or  Dugdale  on  The 
Jukes ;  Galton,  Hereditary  Ge7iius ;  Woods,  ''  Mental  and  Moral 
Heredity  in  Royalty,"  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  366-378, 
449-460,  506-513,  Vol.  LXII,  pp.  76-84,  167-182;  Ellis,  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LVIII,  pp.  595-603;  Vol.  LVI,  pp.  59-67; 
Oppenheim,  Development  of  the  Child,  chap,  iv ;  and  for  a  good 
brief  discussion  of  theory  and  facts,  see  Eigenmann,  Pop.  Sci. 
Mo.,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  32-44. 

On  heredity  and  education,  see  Guyau,  Education  a7id  Heredity ; 
Bradford,  Heredity  a7id  Christia7t  Proble7ns. 

On  social  heredity,  see  Baldwin,  Vol.  II,  especially  pp.  57-64 ;  Allen, 
N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  400-405,  436-439  ;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol. 
XVIII,  pp.  344-352 ;  Monro,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  367-377. 

See  also  Wilson,  The  Cell  i7i  Developtnent  and  Inheritance ;  Mar- 
wedil,  Co7iscious  Motherhood. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

INDIVIDUALITY 
SIGNIFICANCE    OF    THE    TERM 

Whatever  has  a  separate  existence  so  that  it  cannot 
be  divided  or  fused  with  something  else,  without  losing 
its  essential  unity,  has  individuality.  A  pebble,  there- 
fore, has  some  individuality,  while  a  drop  of  water  has 
none.  Again,  in  order  to  have  individuality,  an  object 
must  not  only  have  a  unitary  and  separate  existence,  but 
it  must  differ  from  every  other  unit.  Coins,  as  they  roll 
from  the  mint,  have  no  individuality,  for  each  is  exactly 
like  the  other.  The  products  of  machines  generally 
lack  individuality,  while  hand-made  goods  and  the  prod- 
ucts of  organic  nature  all  possess  some  individuality. 
No  two  leaves  are  ever  found  exactly  alike. 

Difference  from  other  similar  units  may  be  taken  as 
the  essential  element  in  individuality.  The  difference 
may  be  slight  or  great,  and  in  one  or  many  characteristics. 
The  more  characteristics  a  thing  possesses,  the  greater 
are  the  chances  for  difference  or  individuality.  A 
mere  point  can  differ  from  another  point  in  position 
only,  while  a  line  may  differ  from  other  lines  in  position, 
direction,  and  length,  and  a  rectangle  from  other  rec- 
tangles in  position,  length,  breadth,  and  proportion  of 
length  to  breadth.  If  the  rectangle  is  a  material  object, 
it  may  also  differ   from  other  rectangular    objects,    in 

302 


INDIVIDUALITY  303 

composition,  weight,  thickness,  color,  and  smoothness. 
Organic  objects  may  differ  in  all  these  ways  and  also 
in  origin,  manner  of  growth,  length  of  life,  etc.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  most  complex  things  may 
be  most  unlike ;  hence  man,  the  most  complex  of  animals, 
has  the  greatest  individuality  of  all.  This  is  true  of  the 
body,  and  with  still  more  truth  may  we  say,  "every 
human  soul  is  unique." 

Although  a  description  of  the  peculiarities  of  an  in- 
dividual, as  compared  with  the  corresponding  qualities 
in  others,  is  the  easiest  way  of  showing  his  individuality, 
it  is  in  a  way  superficial.  Individuality  depends  more 
upon  harmony  and  unity  of  qualities  or  their  lack 
than  it  does  upon  the  degree  in  which  each  quality  is 
possessed  as  compared  with  the  average  person.  The 
permanency  of  the  particular  orgajiization  of  qualities 
is  also  another  measure  of  individuality. 

BIOLOGICAL    VALUE    OF    INDIVIDUALITY 

Biologically,  the  significance  of  individuality  is  as 
great  as  that  of  heredity.  If  every  individual  of  a  new 
generation  were  exactly  like  its  parents,  evolution  would 
be  impossible.  An  almost  infinite  variety  of  individuals 
must  be  produced  in  order  that  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  evolution,  i.e.  natural  selection,  may  act  effec- 
tively. Probably  not  one  acorn  in  a  thousand  sprouts 
and  takes  root,  and  not  more  than  one  in  a  hundred  of 
those  that  do,  ever  reach  the  proportions  of  a  full-sized 
oak.  The  loss  of  buds  and  branches  in  each  individual 
oak  is  almost  equally  great.  In  the  animal  world  the 
loss  is  scarcely  less,  especially  in  the  lower  forms  of 
animal   life.      If   all  grasshoppers'  eggs    matured,  the 


304  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

globe  would  be  buried  with  them  in  a  few  years.  Which 
of  these  vast  multitudes  of  young  creatures  of  each 
species  shall  survive,  seems  entirely  a  matter  of  chance, 
or,  in  other  words,  of  temporary  and  local  conditions  ;  but 
such  is  not  the  case.  No  two  organisms,  from  the  tini- 
est leaf,  or  seed,  and  the  smallest  bug  to  the  most  com- 
plex of  all  beings,  —  man,  are  exactly  alike.  Despite 
their  similarity  every  member  of  each  species  has  some 
individuality.  Those  having  characteristics  in  the  slight- 
est degree  more  suitable  to  the  constant  conditions  of 
life,  are  most  likely  to  be  preserved  to  produce  others 
with  some  of  the  same  characteristics. 

The  enormous  loss  of  life  in  each  new  generation  is 
therefore  not  wholly  useless,  for  those  animals  that  sur- 
vive have  the  characteristics  that  fit  them  to  live  success- 
fully in  the  environment  into  which  they  were  born, 
while  those  that  perished  were  less  favorably  endowed. 
The  continued  existence  of  the  species  so  long  as  con- 
ditions remain  the  same,  is  thus  assured.  If  conditions 
change,  some  individuals  are  likely  to  survive  and  pro- 
duce descendants,  whereas,  if  all  were  alike,  all  would 
perish.  The  selection,  for  survival,  of  those  best  suited 
to  the  new  conditions,  results  in  further  evolution  of  the 
species  and  its  more  complete  adaptation  to  the  new 
life  conditions. 

To  the  human  race,  individuality  is  even  more  im- 
portant, for  not  only  does  it  favor  physical  evolution, 
but  also  social  progress.  If  there  were  no  persons 
differing  from  the  common  mass  of  mankind,  to  serve 
as  leaders  and  models  for  imitation,  changes  in  customs 
and  modes  of  thinking  would  be  impossible.  Progress 
would  come  to  an  eternal  standstill. 


INDIVIDUALITY  305 

COMMONALITY    AND    INDIVIDUALITY 

Every  person,  as  Shylock  eloquently  shows,  has  the 
essential  characteristics  of  a  common  humanity  as  well 
as  individual  peculiarities.  Physically,  all  have  body, 
limbs,  head,  and  internal  organs ;  but  the  absolute  and 
relative  size  of  each  are  never  the  same  in  two  indi- 
viduals. 

In  height,  men  vary  from  three  feet  to  eight  feet,  and 
in  weight,  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  pounds.  The  aver- 
age child  at  birth  weighs  about  seven  pounds,  but  an 
individual  child  may  weigh  anywhere  from  three  to 
sixteen  pounds.  Although  seventy  per  cent  of  the  chil- 
dren in  a  first  grade  may  be  comfortable  seated  in 
the  average  seat  for  that  grade,  some  individuals  will 
require  much  smaller  seats,  and  others,  seats  as  large  as 
are  usually  required  in  a  sixth-grade  room.  The  aver- 
age pulse  beat  of  men  is  seventy,  but  it  may  be 
forty  or  over  a  hundred.  Differences  equally  great  are 
found  in  every  organ  and  process,  and  in  the  relation  of 
parts  and  processes  to  each  other,  e.g.  a  man  six  feet 
high  may  have  a  shorter  body  than  one  only  five  and  a 
half  feet  in  height.  Indeed,  it  is  difference  in  propor- 
tion of  parts  rather  than  in  absolute  size  that  enables 
us  to  distinguish  one  individual  from  another. 

Even  the  very  elements  of  which  bone  and  muscle 
are  composed  differ  in  different  persons ;  hence  the 
combination  of  these  elements  into  organs  of  different 
sizes  must  give  rise  to  still  greater  differences  in  physi- 
ological processes,  temperaments,  movements,  sensa- 
tions, thoughts,  emotions  and  actions. 

Shoe  dealers,  doctors,  teachers,  and  preachers  would 

X 


306  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

find  their  tasks  much  simplified  (though  rather  dull 
and  mechanical)  if  there  were  complete  uniformity. 
Society  would  be  quite  democratic.  There  would  be 
no  idiots  and  no  geniuses,  no  criminals  and  no  philan- 
thropists, no  radicals  and  no  conservatives.  Methods  of 
work  and  modes  of  worship  would  soon  alike  be  me- 
chanically regulated  and  continued  without  change. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  a  country  where  there  is  great 
individuality  and  no  uniformity,  governments  exist  only 
by  force.  Common  processes,  standards,  and  laws  are 
impossible  ;  there  is  no  peace  except  that  of  tyranny  and 
subjection,  and  no  permanency  beyond  the  life  of  the 
dominant  individual.  A  certain  amount  of  uniformity 
is  therefore  necessary  to  the  stability  and  peace  of  the 
social  organism,  while  individuality  is  equally  necessary 
if  it  is  to  be  progressive. 

Looking  at  the  matter  simply  from  the  standpoint  of 
individual  happiness,  the  person  who  is  like  his  fellows 
in  nearly  all  respects  is  in  harmony  with  his  social  en- 
vironment, and  so  far  as  that  is  concerned,  is  at  least 
negatively  happy.  The  person  who  differs  greatly  from 
his  fellows  in  knowledge,  temperament,  habits,  and 
ideals  is  shut  off  from  any  real  companionship,  because 
there  are  none  of  his  kind  with  whom  to  associate.  He 
is  irritated  by  their  monotonous  lives,  and  they,  by  his 
eccentricities ;  hence  the  man  of  genius  is  often  miser- 
able. The  person  who  differs  from  his  fellows  by  in- 
feriority is  even  more  unfortunate  if  he  realizes  it. 
Perhaps  there  is  least  comfort  for  the  man  who  is 
neither  superior  nor  inferior,  but  simply  different.  To 
be  happy,  a  man  must  have  much  in  common  with  his 
fellows ;  and  to  be  useful,  he  must  have  also  something 


mDIVIDUALITY  307 

that  they  have  not.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  not  only 
does  the  stability  and  improvement  of  the  social  organ- 
ism depend  upon  the  presence  of  both  common  char- 
acteristics and  individual  peculiarities,  but  so  also  does 
the  welfare  and  happiness  of  the  individuals  composing 
the  social  organism. 

FACTORS    PRODUCING    COMMONALITY    AND    INDIVIDUALITY 

Heredity  favors  uniformity  in  proportion  to  the  old- 
ness  and  pureness  of  the  ancestral  Une,  while  mixed 
parentage  results  in  greater  differences  in  the  offspring. 
In  no  case,  however,  are  all  the  children  of  the  same 
parents  exactly  alike,  even  at  birth.  How  far  these 
differences  are  due  to  germ  heredity,  and  how  far  to 
prenatal  influences,  we  do  not  know ;  but  the  fact 
remains  that  every  person  has  in  some  degree  native 
or  congenital  individuality. 

Experiejice,  training,  and  teaching,  in  so  far  as  they 
are  uniform,  favor  commonality.  Where  there  is  the 
same  cUmate,  industries,  customs,  laws,  religion,  and 
knowledge  distributed  through  the  schools  and  the  press, 
the  people  will  inevitably  be  of  a  single  type. 

Though  there  are  statural  and  social  i?ifluences  tend- 
ing to  produce  commonality,  yet  a  greater  or  less  degree 
of  individuality  is  found  in  every  home,  community,  and 
nation  because  (i)  congenital  differences  cause  the  indi- 
viduals to  react  in  various  ways  to  the  common  external 
influences,  (2)  differences  in  treatment  result  from  these 
congenital  peculiarities  {e.g.  a  bright  child  is  asked  to  do 
things  a  dull  one  is  not,  and  a  quarrelsome  child  is 
treated  differently  from  an  even-tempered  one  by  his 
companions),  and  (3)  chance  influences  (such  as  being 


308  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

the  youngest  or  oldest  in  the  family,  and  special  ac- 
cidents or  events  that  affect  one  child  and  not  another, 
or  that  occur  at  a  different  stage  of  development)  give 
a  different  form  to  each  character.  Slight  differences 
may  produce,  ultimately,  enormous  individual  varia- 
tions. The  truth  :  "  To  him  that  hath  shall  be  given," 
is  of  the  widest  possible  application,  and  thus  all  con- 
genital individuality  may  be  increased  by  external  in- 
fluences. 

TIME    OF    GREATEST   INDIVIDUALITY 

It  is  hard  to  say  at  what  age  individuality  is  greatest. 
In  adults  there  is  much  more  of  the  harmony  and  unity 
of  characteristics  that  make  an  individual  a  person, 
instead  of  a  mass  of  partly  related  phenomena,  than  in 
the  case  of  an  infant.  The  individuaUty  is  also  more 
fixed,  so  that  it  is  less  modifiable  by  surroundings.  In 
children,  individuality  is  less  because  the  child's  nature 
is  simpler  and  many  of  his  peculiarities  are  transient. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  child's  individuality  is  greater  in 
some  ways  because  he  has  not  been  subjected  to  the 
many  years  of  social  training  and  education  that  have 
tended  to  make  adults  all  aUke.  The  new  instincts  that 
develop  as  the  years  pass,  increase  the  possibility  of 
individual  differences  in  a  way  that  partially  balances 
the  influences  tending  to  uniformity. 

Measurements  and  tests  show  greater  individual  differ- 
ences for  young  children,  and  for  those  just  entering 
their  teens,  than  for  other  ages.  This  is  largely  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  rapid  changes  are  occurring 
at  these  ages,  and  by  the  fact  that  such  changes  begin 
earlier  in  some  children  than  in  others.     About  three 


INDIVIDUALITY 


309 


times  as  many  children  are  of  the  mean  weight  at  eight 
years  of  age  as  at  fifteen ;  while  the  difference  in  weight 
between  the  largest  and  the  smallest  boy  at  fifteen  is 
about  twice  as  great  as  between  the  largest  and  smallest 
boy  at  eight.  The  changes  being  slow  for  several  years 
before  and  after  eight  years,  a  difference  of  a  year  or 
two  in  the  time  of  entering  upon  a  new  stage  of  de- 
velopment makes  only  sHght  individual  difference  in 
children  of  that  age,  while  at  about  fifteen  the  changes 
are  so  great  that  the  difference  between  one  who  is 
a  year  late  and  one  who  is  a  year  early  in  his  develop- 
ment is  very  marked. 

Physiological  studies  show  also  that  adolescents  differ 
greatly  from  each  other  in  thought,  feeling,  and  action  ; 
and  history  testifies  that  many  inventions  and  innova- 
tions have  been  made  by  adolescents.  We  therefore 
conclude  that,  everything  considered,  individuaUty  is 
greatest  during  the  adolescent  period.  Some  persons 
who  resist  common  influences,  and  continue  to  develop 
their  own  pecuharities,  show  the  greatest  individuaUty  in 
maturity  or  old  age ;  but  the  majority  become  more  and 
more  like  their  fellows  in  general  society,  and  like  their 
co-workers  in  their  occupation. 

GENERAL    AND    PARTICULAR   TRUTHS    REGARDING 
CHILDREN 

The  anatomist,  physiologist,  psychologist,  and  moral- 
ist make  many  generalizations  as  to  what  is  true  of  the 
average  man ;  but  no  individual  will  be  found  who  is  in 
all  particulars  an  average  man.  The  generalizations  are 
not  false  or  useless,  but  eminently  true  and  valuable, 
since  they  give  a  mean  or  standard  to  which  the  great 


310  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

majority  of  men  approximately  conform.  Where  there 
is  one  man  between  seven  and  eight  feet  high,  there  are 
hundreds  of  thousands  between  five  and  six  feet.  It  is 
thus  practical  to  construct  doors,  chairs,  and  beds  to  suit 
the  majority  of  men.  The  variations  in  proportion  of 
parts  are  greater,  yet  the  majority  of  men  can  be  fairly 
well  fitted  with  ready-made  clothing.  A  perfect  fit, 
however,  requires  individual  measurement,  and  in  a  few 
cases  such  measurement  is  necessary  in  order  for  the 
clothes  to  be  worn  at  all. 

Standards  regarding  physical  processes  are  of  great 
value  in  medicine  as  indices  of  physical  health ;  yet 
physicians  find  it  necessary  to  determine  the  normal 
standards  of  individuals  in  order  to  properly  diagnose 
and  prescribe  successfully. 

Generalizations  regarding  the  mental  power  and  the 
moral  worth  of  the  average  man  are  of  immense  value  in 
practical  and  social  life,  yet  individuality  must  be  recog- 
nized in  explaining  or  appealing  to  men,  to  a  greater 
extent  than  in  manufacturing  furniture  and  clothing,  or 
in  prescribing  food,  medicine,  and  exercise. 

Scientific  students  of  children  are  trying  to  make 
generalizations  in  the  realms  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
psychology,  and  morals  as  to  the  characteristics  most 
prominent  at  different  ages.  Such  generalizations,  when 
carefully  made,  are  valuable  as  standards  of  comparison. 
They  are  not,  however,  models  to  which  individuals 
should  be  made  to  conform,  any  more  than  men  should 
be  made  over  to  fit  coats,  chairs,  or  the  size  of  pills. 
On  the  contrary,  the  results  of  child-study  investigations 
have  always  emphasized  the  greatness  of  individual  dif- 
ference in  children  and  the  need  of  recognizing  it.     For 


INDIVIDUALITY  3II 

example,  though  carefully  prepared  tables  show  that 
the  average  boy  of  eight  is  forty-seven  inches  high,  yet 
individuals  of  that  age  are  found  fifty-five  inches  in 
height,  which  is  equal  to  that  of  the  average  twelve- 
year-old,  and  others,  only  thirty-five  inches,  or  less  than 
the  height  of  the  av^erage  three-year-old. 

After  the  sixth  year,  the  fifteenth  year  is  for  the  aver- 
age boy  the  year  of  most  rapid  growth ;  but  individual 
boys  begin  to  grow  more  rapidly  as  early  as  the  twelfth 
year,  and  others  as  late  as  the  nineteenth.  Again,  the 
average  boy  grows  about  three  inches  in  his  fifteenth 
year ;  but  individuals  have  been  known  to  grow  thirteen 
inches  in  that  year.  Tests  of  rate  of  movement,  strength, 
endurance,  sensitiveness,  discrimination,  and  memory 
show  increase  during  school  age  of  from  two  to  five 
fold ;  yet  nearly  as  great  differences  are  found  between 
the  poorest  and  the  best  individuals  of  each  age.  In 
nearly  all  tests  of  children  of  different  school  grades, 
even  where  the  change  with  grade  is  marked  and  fairly 
regular,  one  usually  finds  nearly  as  wide  a  divergence 
between  children  in  the  same  grade  as  between  the 
averages  for  the  lowest  and  the  highest  grades. 

Children  usually  learn  to  walk  when  a  little  over  a  year 
old,  but  some  begin  as  early  as  seven  months,  and  others 
not  until  nearly  two  years  of  age.  At  two  years,  most 
children  use  three  or  four  hundred  words ;  but  some  do 
not  use  a  dozen,  and  others,  more  than  a  thousand. 
Most  children  show  marked  changes  soon  after  enter- 
ing the  teens ;  but  some  show  none,  and  others  go 
through  such  changes  long  before  or  long  after  that 
time.  Children  who  do  well  in  their  school  work  (ac- 
cording to  Porter  and  Hastings)  average   larger   than 


312  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

those  who  do  poorly ;  but  a  dozen  exceptions  to  this 
generalization  could  probably  be  found  in  almost  every 
school.  The  time  element  makes  all  generalizations  in 
child  study  more  difficult  than  in  mere  anatomy,  physi- 
ology, psychology,  and  ethics,  because  the  age  at  which 
changes  take  place  varies  greatly  in  different  children ; 
hence  those  who  may,  when  mature,  be  much  alike, 
are  often  quite  different  at  certain  periods  of  life, 
because  one  has  entered  upon  a  new  stage  of  develop- 
ment much  earlier  than  the  other. 

NECESSITY    OF    RECOGNIZING   INDIVIDUALITY   IN    CHILDREN 

Whether  the  teacher  wishes  to  promote  individuality 
or  uniformity,  she  must  (if  she  is  to  be  in  the  highest 
degree  successful)  recognize  individuality.  Children 
are  different  to  begin  with,  hence  they  react  differently 
to  the  same  treatment.  In  order  to  get  them  to  react 
in  the  same  way,  so  as  to  have  uniform  development, 
they  must  be  appealed  to  differently.  If  a  uniform 
standard  is  to  be  approached,  certain  characteristics 
must  be  fostered  in  some  and  suppressed  in  others. 
If  the  same  knowledge  and  skill  are  to  be  obtained, 
different  individuals  must  be  allowed  different  periods 
of  time  for  doing  a  given  amount  of  work,  because 
experiments  show  that  the  number  of  units  of  work 
that  can  be  accomplished  by  some  members  of  a  class 
in  a  given  time  is  from  two  to  four  times  as  great  as 
can  be  accompHshed  by  other  students  of  the  same 
class,  and  this  even  in  a  senior  class  of  a  high  school 
supposed  to  be  well  graded.  If  all  are  to  form  habits 
of  effort  and  industry,  different  requirements  must 
therefore  be  made  of  different  children,  otherwise  some 


INDIVIDUALITY  3 1 3 

will  be  forming  habits  of  idleness,  while  others  are  over- 
doing or  forming  habits  of  "  skimming."  Difference 
in  knowledge,  as  well  as  in  natural  powers  and  tenden- 
cies, must  be  recognized,  or  one  will  be  confused  where 
another  is  enlightened. 

It  is  clear  from  the  preceding  that  if  one  wishes 
uniform  results  from  educational  processes,  he  must 
recognize  individuality.  Much  more,  then,  if  one  aims 
to  develop  individuality,  must  he  recognize  it  at  every 
step  in  the  process.  If,  as  in  the  highest  ideals  of 
education,  it  is  desired  to  make  each  individual  like  his 
fellows  in  all  ways  necessary  to  association  with  them, 
and  different  from  them  in  all  ways  which  his  natural 
tendencies  and  position  in  life  demand  shall  be  different, 
there  is  double  reason  for  recognizing  individuality. 

When  we  say  individuality  ')mist  be  recognized,  we 
mean  the  same,  only  with  greater  emphasis,  as  when  we 
say  each  person  must  be  measured  in  order  that  his 
clothing  may  be  made  to  fit.  We  know,  however,  that 
the  people  of  a  city  can  be  better  fitted  from  a  stock  of 
ready-made  clothing,  which  has  been  cut  according  to 
general  principles  governing  the  size  and  proportion 
of  parts  of  the  majority  of  men  and  boys,  than  they 
can  be  by  a  poor  tailor  who  measures  and  tries  to  fit 
each  one  individually.  He  is  only  an  artisan,  and  not- 
withstanding his  opportunity  for  individual  measurement 
his  results  are  inferior  to  those  of  other  artisans  who 
make  no  measurements  of  individuals,  but  work  accord- 
ing to  general  principles  under  the  direction  of  experts. 
The  best  results  can  only  be  obtained  by  the  expert 
tailor  who  is  able  to  measure  the  individual  accurately, 
apply   general    principles   correctly,    and   exercise    his 


314  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHI^D   STUDY 

judgment  in  making  each  garment  a  work  of  art.  In 
a  similar  way,  we  may  say  that  children  may  be  taught 
more  successfully  in  the  mass,  according  to  general 
principles  under  the  supervision  of  an  expert,  than  they 
can  be  taught  individually  by  a  poor  teacher  who  has 
little  knowledge  of  general  principles  of  education,  and 
less  ability  in  reading  individual  children,  and  no  skill 
in  dealing  with  them.  The  best  results  can  be  reached, 
however,  only  when  the  teacher  is  an  artist  and  able  to 
fit  the  work  to  individual  needs,  so  that  every  child  may 
be  moulded  according  to  the  same  general  type  as  other 
children,  and  developed  so  as  to  bring  out  the  highest 
and  best  of  his  individual  characteristics. 

HOW    COMMONALITY   AND   INDIVIDUALITY    MAY    BE 
DEVELOPED 

To  develop  the  common  characteristics  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  proper  social  relations,  there  must 
be  some  uniformity  as  to  what  is  done  and  learned.  All 
must  at  least  learn  a  common  language,  and  some  of 
the  fundamental  customs  of  the  nation.  Many  other 
things  in  our  present  course  of  study  are  more  or  less 
necessary  and  desirable,  but  none  are  so  essential  as 
means  of  communication  and  common  traditions.  A 
certain  amount  of  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  geography, 
etc.,  is  also  desirable  as  a  common  basis  of  under- 
standing. 

To  preserve  individuality,  the  requirements  in  all  the 
subjects  of  a  course  of  study  should  be  set  at  rather 
a  low  minimum,  with  no  maximum  and  no  time  limit. 
In  other  words,  every  child  may  be  required  to  reach 
a  certain  minimum    of   knowledge  and  skill  in  funda- 


INDIVIDUALITY  3 1  5 

mentals,  but  not  in  any  stated  time.  To  promote 
individuality,  he  must  be  allowed  and  encouraged  to 
go  beyond  the  minimum  in  any  lines  he  chooses,  and 
given  opportunity  for  becoming  interested  and  for 
working  in  any  and  every  possible  line  of  study  and 
activity. 

TYPES   OF    INDIVIDUALITY 

Since  every  one  comes  in  contact  with  thousands  of 
individuals  of  varying  similarity  and  difference,  it  would 
be  very  convenient  if  one  could  classify  them  into  a 
few  types,  and  then  deal  with  the  individuals  accord- 
ing to  the  types  to  which  they  belong.  The  classifica- 
tion most  commonly  used  has  been  that  of  temperaments, 
but  unfortunately  (or  perhaps  fortunately)  few  individ- 
uals exhibit  exactly  the  characteristics  ascribed  to  any 
one  of  the  several  temperaments.  Some  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  several  temperaments  are  shown  by  one 
individual,  and  none  of  them  in  the  same  degree  by 
any  two.  In  many  cases  the  best  method  of  treatment 
may  be  more  readily  and  accurately  determined  by 
studying  the  individual  than  by  classifying  him  as 
belonging  to  a  certain  type. 

The  varieties  of  individuality  are  so  great  that  psy- 
chology and  child  study  can  never  tell  teachers  what 
they  would  most  like  to  know  —  just  how  to  deal  with 
individual  pupils.  Science  in  its  very  nature  is  general ; 
its  goal  is  the  discovery  and  statement  of  general  rather 
than  individual  truths.  Scientific  knowledge  is  not,  how- 
ever, useless  to  the  teacher;  the  more  she  knows  of 
how  most  human  beings  act  and  develop,  and  of  the 
characteristics  most  common  at  each  stage  of  develop- 


3l6  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ment,  the  more  quickly  and  correctly  will  she  be  able  to 
determine  what  is  the  best  treatment  for  an  individual 
child.  Experience  in  dealing  with  other  children  more 
or  less  similar,  will  also  be  helpful  in  determining  what 
to  do  with  the  child  in  question.  The  reading  of  how 
other  children  have  been  dealt  with  and  the  study  of  biog- 
raphies and  of  novels  that  are  true  to  life,  may  in  part 
take  the  place  of  actual  experience  with  children.  From 
such  experience  and  study  one  may  form  in  his  own 
mind  a  more  practical  classification  of  children  than 
he  can  by  trying  to  understand  the  types  described  by 
another. 

Children  are  usually  best  described  and  managed 
according  to  prominent  characteristics,  rather  than  ac- 
cording to  groups  of  qualities  indicated  by  type  names. 
It  is  much  more  important  to  the  teacher  to  know 
whether  a  boy  is  slow  or  quick  in  his  mental  operations, 
than  it  is  to  know  whether  he  has  all  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  phlegmatic  or  of  the  nervous  temperament. 
The  accuracy  and  ease  with  which  a  pupil  works,  de- 
pends, more  than  anything  else,  upon  the  rate  at  which 
he  is  required  to  perform  each  operation.  Often  a  pu- 
pil can  work  best  and  most  easily  at  twice  the  rate  that 
is  best  suited  to  his  classmate.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
slow  pupil  may  be  able  to  maintain  a  steady,  prolonged 
activity  under  direction,  for  a  length  of  time  utterly 
impossible  to  the  pupil  with  the  more  agile  mind.  Ex- 
periments by  Davis  indicate  that  persons  who  are  quick 
in  their  reactions  gain  more  in  muscular  power  by  light 
than  by  heavy  practice,  while  those  who  are  slow  gain 
most  by  heavy  practice.  Experiments  on  fatigue  also 
indicate  that  quick  persons  show  more  rapid  and  sud- 


INDIVIDUALITY  317 

den  variations  in  fatigue  than  those  who  are  slow. 
Observation  also  indicates  that  slow  individuals  often 
improve  under  stimulus  and  direction,  while  the  quicker 
pupil  may  be  so  excited  and  disturbed  by  stimulation 
and  close  supervision  that  he  makes  many  mistakes  and 
wastes  much  energy. 

Of  course  there  are  large  numbers  of  children  who 
are  neither  especially  quick  nor  slow,  and  who  are  there- 
fore most  helped  by  an  intermediate  mode  of  treatment. 
The  final  test  of  the  suitability  of  any  method  of  treat- 
ment for  a  child  is  the  effect  which  it  is  observed  to  have 
upon  him ;  hence  no  study  of  generalizations  and  types  of 
individuality  can  ever  render  unnecessary  the  observation 
of  individuals. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  State  some  examples  of  individuality  that  you  have  observed 
in  plants  or  animals. 

2.  If  plants  of  the  same  variety  were  all  alike,  would  it  be  possible 
to  improve  the  variety?     Why? 

3.  Give  not  less  than  six  examples  of  extreme  variation  of  some 
kind  in  people.  Are  any  of  these  persons  treated  differently  because 
of  their  peculiarity  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  uniformity  and 
individuality  in  ability,  beliefs,  and  customs  in  a  community,  so  far 
as  they  may  be  produced  by  education  and  law. 

5.  Give  illustrations  of  persons  who  were  miserable  because  of 
their  difference  from  other  persons,  of  those  who  were  useless  for 
lack  of  it,  and  of  those  interesting  or  influential  because  of  it.  Do 
leaders  have  much,  little,  or  a  medium  individuality? 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  individuality  due  to  heredity,  to  accel- 
eration or  retardation  in  development,  to  surroundings,  to  chance 
circumstances,  to  hereditary  peculiarity.  Is  it  of  any  value  to  the 
teacher  to  know  the  causes  of  individuality?     Why? 

Have  the  people  of  the  United  States  more  or  less  individu- 
ality than   those  of  other   nations?     Why?     Mention   the  various 


3l8  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

factors  tending  to  make  them  have  more  or  less  individuality  than 
the  people  of  England. 

7.  As  regards  permanency  or  degree  of  individuality,  what  would 
the  following  be:  a  radical?  a  conservative?  a  man  set  in  his  way? 
a  genius?  an  imbecile?  a  saint?  a  criminal?  an  athlete?  an  invalid? 
a  giant  ?  a  dwarf  ? 

8.  Do  the  following  promote  individuality  or  commonality: 
churches  ?  lodges  ?  public  lectures  ?  theatres  ?  factories  ?  shops  of  the 
Roycroft  type?  Name  other  things  that  produce  uniformity  or  indi- 
viduality. 

9.  In  what  respects  is  the  individuality  of  a  successful  reformer 
like  that  of  a  crank  or  a  martyr,  and  in  what  respects  different? 

10.  At  what  age  did  you  feel  yourself  most  different  from  other 
people?  If  one  goes  into  new  social  surroundings,  is  he  likely  to 
feel  his  individuality  more  or  less?     Why? 

11.  Give  illustrations  showing  the  value  of  knowledge  of  certain 
general  truths  regarding  the  characteristics  of  children  of  each  age 
and  grade,  and  also  of  the  value  of  knowledge  of  individual  peculiari- 
ties. Which  do  you  think  is  of  more  advantage  to  a  teacher,  to 
know  many  general  truths  regarding  children,  or  to  be  able  to  readily 
note  and  understand  individual  peculiarities  ? 

12.  If  a  class  of  children  are  to  be  prepared  for  the  same  exami- 
nation, why  should  individuality  be  recognized?     Illustrate. 

13.  In  preparing  a  lesson,  should  a  teacher  think  more  of  the 
common  characteristics  of  a  class  or  of  their  individual  peculiarities? 
During  the  lesson  which  should  she  think  more  of  ?  How  can  she 
best  meet  both  class  and  individual  needs  ? 

14.  What  is  the  general  effect  upon  individuality  of  allowing  chil- 
dren to  choose  for  themselves  a  good  deal?     Illustrate. 

15.  Describe  some  of  the  ways  in  which  you  have  known  indi- 
viduality to  be  recognized  and  promoted  in  school. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  nature  and  importance  of  individuality,  see  Bailey,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  649-651  ;  Ch.  S.  Mo..,  Vol.  I,  pp.  649-651  ; 
N.  W.  Mo..,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  250-256,  370-375  ;  Stanley,  Ed.  Rev., 
Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  80-84;  Howerth,/r.  Fed.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  311- 


INDIVIDUALITY  3 19 

324;  Doan, /r.  Ped..  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  13-33;  '^ihoi,  Psychology 
of  the  Emotions,  pp.  380-404. 

On  tests  and  types  of  individuality,  Wissler,  Monograph  Suppl.  to 
Psych.  Rev..,  No.  16,  pp.  1-62  ;  Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  203-213  ; 
Sharp,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  328-391  ;  Kirkpatrick,  Psych. 
Rev.,  Vol.  VIL  pp.  274-280:  Kelley,  Psych.  Rev..  Vol.  VII, 
PP-  345-372  ;  Bagley,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  193-205  : 
Bohannon,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  3-60,  Vol.  V,  pp.  475-496; 
F.  Burk,  A^.  W.  Mo..  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  481-484;  Baldwin,  Ch.  S. 
Mo..  Vol.  I,  pp.  121-124;  Beebe,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  14- 
25  ;  Burnham,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  204-225  :  Davis,  Vale 
Studies,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  64-108  ;  Ladd,  Physiol.  Psych.,  chap.  xi. 

For  studies  of  individuals,  Stableton,  Diary  of  a  Western  School- 
master, or  a  series  of  articles  in  N".  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII :  Carmin, 
Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  106-117;  Galton,  '-History  of  Twins," 
in  Human  Faculty,  or  as  reprinted  in  Teachers  College  Record, 
May,  1 90 1,  or  a  number  of  sketches  of  individual  children  in 
Ch.  S.  Mo.,  together  with  such  works  as  Smith's  Evolution  of 
Dodd. 

On  indindual  teaching,  see  Search,  An  Ideal  School,  chap,  viii : 
N.  E.  A.,  1895,  pp.  398-406;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  154-170; 
Kennedy,  Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  130-139;  Greenwood,  Prifui- 
ples  of  Education  practically  Applied,  pp.  173-192. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

ABNORMALITIES 

Abnormality  may  be  regarded  as  that  form  of  indi- 
viduality which  is  in  some  degree  destructive.  No 
peculiarity,  however  marked,  is,  properly  speaking,  an 
abnormality,  unless  it  interferes  either  temporarily  or 
permanently  with  physical  or  mental  functions.  We 
shall  consider  here  only  those  abnormal  conditions  and 
defects  which  are  of  most  significance  to  parents  and 
teachers. 

FATIGUE  :  NATURE  AND  CAUSES 

Every  one  knows  what  it  is  to  feel  tired,  either  all 
over  or  in  certain  portions  of  the  body,  and  in  common 
language  this  feeling  of  weariness  is  often  called  fatigue. 
The  scientist,  however,  pays  little  attention  to  Xht  feeling 
of  weariness  in  investigating  the  subject.  In  studying 
fatigue  in  another  person,  in  animals,  or  in  a  single 
muscle,  there  is  no  means  of  observing  the  feeling  of 
weariness.  We  can,  however,  observe  the  action  of  the 
muscle,  animal,  or  person,  and  note  changes  in  the  action 
after  it  has  continued  for  some  time.  The  decrease  in 
power  to  do  indicated  by  change  in  amount,  rate,  or 
accuracy,  which  can  be  observed  and  measured,  is  what 
is  meant  by  fatigue.  Hence  fatigue  is  a  condition  of 
decreased  power  produced  by  continued  activity. 

Y  321 


322  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Not  only  is  it  more  practicable  to  study  fatigue  in  the 
scientific  than  in  the  common  meaning  of  the  word,  but 
the  feeling  of  weariness,  and  fatigue,  in  the  scientific 
meaning  of  the  word,  do  not  necessarily  correspond. 
A  person  may  feel  tired  before  his  power  to  do  shows 
any  decrease,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  an  individual 
often  does  not  feel  weary  after  his  power  to  act  has 
been  very  much  decreased. 

Physiologically,  fatigue  may  be  of  (a)  muscles,  (d) 
nerve  centres,  or  (c)  sense  organs,  but  probably  never 
of  nerve  fi.bres.  Lombard's  experiments  show  that  when 
a  finger  is  so  fatigued  that  it  cannot  be  moved  volun- 
tarily, the  muscles  may  be  caused  to  contract  by  electri- 
cal stimulation.  This  indicates  that  the  nerve  centres 
controlling  muscles  may  be  completely  fatigued,  while 
the  muscles  themselves  are  not  In  nearly  all  action, 
there  is  diffusion  of  impulses  to  muscles  and  nerve 
centres  not  directly  concerned  in  the  act  being  per- 
formed. Especially  is  this  the  case  when  considerable 
effort  is  being  made;  hence  parts  concerned  in  these 
associated  acts  may  also  become  fatigued.  The  feeling 
of  weariness  following  acts  of  attention  is  probably 
often  due  largely  to  the  fatigue  of  the  eye,  and  other 
muscles  that  are  unconsciously  kept  contracted. 

The  loss  of  power  when  fatigued  is  probably  due  to 
three  causes:  (i)  deficiency  of  oxygen  necessary  to 
chemical  activity  in  the  working  parts  ;  (2)  the  clogging 
and  perhaps  poisonous  effects  of  waste  material  thrown 
into  circulation  by  the  parts  that  are  active,  and  (3)  de- 
crease of  nervous  and  muscular  energy  stored  up  in 
the  parts.  The  change  that  takes  place  in  the  chemical 
reaction  of  an  active  muscle,  in  the  size  of  an  active 


ABNORMALITIES  323 

nerve  cell,  and  in  the  amount  of  waste  material  thrown 
off  by  the  organism  when  it  becomes  active,  leaves  little 
room  to  doubt  that  there  is  a  direct  relation  between 
activity  and  chemical  changes.  The  energy  used  in 
physiological  activity  comes  from  the  breaking  up  of 
complex  compounds  as  action  proceeds,  and  recovery 
from  fatigue  is  the  result  of  the  carrying  away  of  waste 
and  poisonous  material,  and  the  building  up  of  fresh 
complex  compounds.  While  action  is  in  progress  it  is 
doubtful  whether  there  is  any  building  up  of  fresh 
m.aterial,  but  there  is  probably  continual  use  of  the 
oxygen  carried  by  the  blood,  in  the  chemical  action  that 
is  taking  place.  The  feeling  of  v/eariness  and  tempo- 
rary fatigue  are  probably  caused  principally  by  the 
decrease  of  oxygen  in  the  blood,  and  by  the  clogging 
and  poisonous  effects  of  waste  material.  This  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  a  dog,  into  whose  veins  the 
blood  of  a  fatigued  dog  was  injected,  showed  all  the 
signs  of  weariness.  Fatigue  that  requires  a  long  inter- 
val of  rest  is  probably  largely  due  to  the  loss  of  energy 
which  must  then  be  renewed  by  building  up  new  com- 
pounds. 

It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  molecules  in  most  favor- 
able condition  for  being  broken  down  are  used  up  in 
slight  fatigue,  while  others  do  not  readily  give  out  their 
energy  until  an  extra  stimulus  is  received,  or  the  waste 
material  removed.  This  is  perhaps  the  reason  why  one 
who  receives  a  fresh  or  stronger  stimulus  may  seem 
to  suddenly  recover  from  fatigue,  and  work  more  vigor- 
ously than  before.  Thus  the  news  that  the  enemy  is 
coming  seems  to  give  the  weary,  marching  soldiers  fresh 
energy,  and  the  promise  of  a  day's  fishing  stimulates  the 


324  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

lagging  boy  to  hoe  quickly  his  row  of  corn.  It  is  prob- 
able, therefore,  as  Thorndike  claims,  that  many  experi- 
ments upon  fatigue  have  tested  inclination  to  do,  rather 
than  actual  power.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  inclination  has  a  physical  basis. 

LAWS    OF    FATIGUE 

The  laws  of  fatigue,  revealed  by  many  and  prolonged 
investigations  recently  made  upon  both  physical  and 
mental  activities,  are  found  to  be  very  complex. 

(i)  Soon  after  activity  begins,  not  fatigue,  but  its 
opposite  is  shown  in  what  is  called  in  common  lan- 
guage "  warming  tip  to  the  work."  The  rate  and  accu- 
racy are  greater  after  a  short  period  of  activity  than 
at  the  beginning,  and  this  is  true  in  acts  so  perfectly 
learned  that  there  is  no  improvement  through  practice. 
The  cause  of  this  is,  in  part  at  least,  the  increased  flow 
of  blood  that  always  goes  to  an  active  part.  It  may  be 
also  that  after  chemical  action  is  once  set  up  in  a  centre, 
it  proceeds  more  rapidly  than  at  first,  just  as  a  fire 
burns  better  after  it  is  started. 

(2)  Fatigue  may  be  either  general  or  local.  Local 
fatigue  may  be  confined  to  a  single  muscle  or  to  the 
nerve  centre  controlling  it,  to  a  single  sense  organ  or  its 
centre,  or  even  to  one  or  two  peripheral  elements  of  a 
sense  organ,  as  a  single  spot  on  the  skin,  a  few  retinal 
elements  of  the  eye,  or  to  the  elements  concerned  in  the 
perception  of  certain  odors,  tastes,  or  colors. 

(3)  Extreme  general  fatigue  produces  local  fatigue 
of  all  parts,  but  apparently  not  in  equal  degrees,  and 
extreme  local  fatigue  affects  other  and  fifially  all  parts, 
the  order   probably  depending   upon   diffusion   of   im- 


ABNORMALITIES 


325 


pulses,  especially  in  lines  of  associated  action.  Any- 
thing that  lowers  general  vitality,  as  fasting,  loss  of  sleep, 
depressing  weather,  or  sickness,  produces  a  condition 
similar  to  general  fatigue. 

(4)  There  are  some  facts  favoring  the  idea  that  the 
energy  stored  up  in  one  part  may  be  transferred  to  other 
parts  in  case  of  need.  There  is  undoubtedly  indirect 
transference  of  energy  in  cases  where  starving  men  or 
animals  "  live  on  their  own  fat  "  for  days,  and  not  only 
live,  but  expend  energy  in  actions  of  all  kinds.  In  such 
cases  the  nutriment  is  probably  absorbed  by  the  blood 
and  supplied  to  the  parts  most  needing  it.  In  the  phe- 
nomena of  rhythmical  recovery  or  "second  breath,"  dis- 
cussed below,  the  increase  of  energy,  however,  is  so 
sudden  that  it  seems  hardly  Hkely  that  the  blood  is  the 
medium  of  transference  (though  perhaps  not  impossible, 
for  recovery  from  fatigue  after  fasting  begins  almost  as 
soon  as  food  is  taken,  and  is  nearly  complete,  if  the 
fast  has  not  been  extreme,  in  half  an  hour),  hence  it  is 
thought  that  nervous  energy  may  pass  from  surrounding 
centres  to  a  fatigued  centre,  in  the  same  way  that  im- 
pulses spread  from  one  active  centre  to  other  centres. 

(5)  Fatigue  usually  increases  and  tJien  decreases 
rhythmically.  It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  common 
observation  among  those  who  work  or  play  vigorously 
for  a  long  time,  that  after  becoming  very  tired  so  that 
they  are  almost  unable  to  do  anything,  continued  effort 
frequently  results  in  a  rather  sudden  return  of  power,  so 
that  they  are  soon  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  fresh  as  at  the 
beginning.  Laboratory  investigations  of  this  phenome- 
non, known  as  "  second  breath,"  have  been  recently 
made,  and  the  results  of  common  observation  confirmed 


326  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

and  made  more  exact.  Lombard  found  that  if  he  con- 
tinued to  try  to  contract  his  finger  after  it  had  become  so 
fatigued  that  he  could  not  move  it,  he  soon  regained  the 
power  almost  completely,  and  that  it  was  possible  to 
recover,  after  producing  complete  fatigue,  again  and 
again,  though  not  so  perfectly  as  at  first.  By  alternat- 
ing electrical  stimulation  with  voluntary  contraction,  it 
was  found  that  the  periods  of  exhaustion  and  recovery 
occurred  in  both  nerve  centre  and  in  muscle,  but  not  at 
the  same  time.  In  some  persons,  complete  exhaustion 
and  recovery  cannot  be  produced,  while  in  nearly  all 
cases  continued  effort  results  in  variations  indicating 
partial  renewal  of  energy  or  recovery  from  fatigue. 

This  phenomenon  of  sudden  recovery  after  exhaustion 
may  be  partially  explained,  where  it  is  local  fatigue  only, 
by  the  fact,  easily  observable,  that  as  one  makes  great 
effort  to  do  a  thing,  there  is  a  wider  diffusion  of  im- 
pulses in  the  act.  In  extreme  fatigue  of  a  muscle  and 
its  centre,  it  is  probable  that  a  large  part  of  the  energy 
is  diffused  to  other  parts,  and  possibly  for  a  while  these 
only  are  active,  thus  drawing  the  blood  away  and  giving 
the  exhausted  portion  time  for  the  waste  material  to  be 
removed,  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  oxygen  brought  in, 
to  again  set  up  active  chemical  action  with  liberation 
of  energy.  The  other  explanation  now  being  received 
favorably  by  many  is,  that  nervous  energy  suddenly 
flows  in  from  surrounding  centres  as  suggested  in  (4). 

(6)  There  seems  to  he  something  in  the  nature  of  a 
constant  daily  rhythm  of  available  energy.  Various  ex- 
periments show  that  not  only  does  bodily  vigor  vary 
with  health  and  the  amount  of  bodily  or  mental  activity 
just  undergone,  but  that  it  varies  at  different  times  of 


ABNORMALITIES  32/ 

the  day,  commonly  being  greatest  in  the  morning  just 
after  breakfast,  and  decreasing  during  the  day,  with  the 
exception  of  slight  rises  just  after  food  has  been  taken 
at  noon  and  at  night.  That  the  daily  rhythm  is  not 
entirely  the  result  of  rest  during  the  night,  and  of  grad- 
ual, general  fatigue  during  the  day,  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  fairly  constant  and  characteristic  for  each 
individual,  but  quite  different  for  different  persons,  a  few- 
being  at  their  best  in  the  afternoon,  and  a  good  many  in 
the  evening.  Since  more  deaths  occur  at  about  four  in 
the  morning  than  at  any  other  hour,  vitality  is  then  prob- 
ably lowest,  owing  partly  to  cosmic  processes.  There  is 
good  reason  to  beUeve,  however,  that  the  daily  rhythm 
in  power  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  pre- 
vious habits  of  working  and  resting. 

(7)  Ext rc7iie  fatigue  leads  to  exJiaustioii  ajid  loss  of  the 
sense  of  weariness.  Marked  variations  from  the  usual 
daily  rhythm,  such  as  being  at  the  best  in  the  afternoon 
or  late  at  night,  are  occasionally  found  in  vigorous  per- 
sons, but  are  sometimes  evidence  of  extreme  fatigue  or 
exhaustion.  This  is  usually  the  case  if  the  individual 
feels  tired  in  the  morning.  It  seems  that  nature  by  the 
feeling  of  weariness  gives  warning  of  fatigue  soon  after 
it  begins;  but  that  later,  as  activity  continues,  and 
perhaps  as  the  resistance  to  the  giving  up  of  nervous 
energy  ceases,  and  the  blood  vessels  of  the  active  parts 
lose  their  elasticity  from  continued  enlargement,  the 
feeliftg  of  weariness  disappears,  and  the  work  can  be 
done  without  discomfort  or  great  effort.  After  a  period 
of  rest  there  is  just  enough  recovery  from  exhaustion 
to  put  one  into  a  condition  of  more  normal  fatigue, 
which  is  felt  as  weariness  and  languor  in  the  morning. 


328  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

but  disappears  with  the  activity  of  the  da}^  as  fatigue 
increases.  This  kind  of  fatigue  is  excessive,  for  it  de- 
pends upon  an  irritable  condition  of  the  centres,  which 
causes  them  to  give  up  readily  their  scanty  supply  of 
energy.  If  activity  under  these  conditions  is  long  con- 
tinued, the  centres  often  lose  their  power  to  absorb 
nutriment  from  the  blood,  and  there  is  a  continual  tear- 
ing down  without  any  building  up ;  though  the  tearing 
down  is  perhaps  shown  in  the  illusive  form  of  ability  to 
work  mentally  without  sleep  or  rest,  and  without  any 
feeling  of  weariness.  This  is  the  condition  usually 
known  as  "  nervous  exhaustion,"  and  a  long  time  is 
required  for  recovery  from  it. 

(8)  Moderate  and  regular  activity  produces  less  fa- 
tigue for  the  amount  of  work  doue  than  spasmodic  and 
excessive  effort.  It  is  possible  to  lift  a  weight  again 
and  again  at  such  infrequent  intervals  that  no  fatigue  will 
appear,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  energy  is  renewed 
before  the  weight  is  again  Hfted.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  it  is  lifted  again  and  again  at  very  short  intervals, 
fatigue  appears  very  soon;  and  if  it  is  lifted  and  held 
suspended,  fatigue  appears  still  more  quickly,  because 
there  is  no  chance  for  renewal  of  energy.  If  a  moder- 
ate v/eight  is  lifted  a  number  of  times  at  a  moderate  rate, 
then  a  sufficient  period  of  rest  taken,  more  work  can  be 
accompHshed  with  less  fatigue  than  in  any  other  way. 
Doubling  the  weight  or  the  rate,  or  prolonging  it  unduly, 
more  than  doubles  the  difficulty  of  the  task.  What  is 
true  of  lifting  weights  is  true  of  all  forms  of  physical 
and  mental  activity.  Too  rapid  or  too  prolonged  ex- 
penditure of  energy  not  only  gives  no  chance  for  accu- 
mulation of  energy,  but  results  in  much  waste  in  useless 


ABNORMALITIES  329 

activity  and  effort.  When  fatigue  is  extreme,  a  long 
time  is  required  for  recovery ;  hence  one  who  works 
when  fatigued,  always  and  inevitably  zvastes  both  energy 
and  time,  to  say  nothing  of  the  effect  on  health. 

(9)  Fatigue  vaHes  with  age.  Compared  with  adults 
of  middle  age,  all  children  fatigue  quickly  and  recover 
quickly.  In  general,  the  younger  the  child,  the  more 
quickly  he  fatigues,  especially  as  regards  local  fatigue, 
and  recovery  is  equally  rapid  when  some  other  part 
is  called  into  action.  According  to  good  authorities, 
children  of  school  age  cannot  be  expected  to  do  one 
thing  without  rest  or  change  for  more  than  ten  minutes, 
in  the  lowest  grade,  gradually  increasing  to  forty  or  fifty 
minutes  in  the  higher  grades.  Friedrich  found  that 
recesses  always  improved  the  power  of  school  children, 
and  that  two  recesses  in  a  three-hour  session  produced 
more  improvement  for  the  latter  part  of  the  session 
than  one. 

( I  o)  The  variations  in  fatigue  phenomena  for  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  age  are  very  great.  Some  fatigue 
quickly  and  recover  quickly,  others  fatigue  slowly  and 
recover  slowly ;  while  those  highly  favored  by  nature 
fatigue  slowly  and  recover  quickly,  and  some  unfortu- 
nates fatigue  quickly  and  recover  slowly.  There  is 
a  certain  rate  and  intensity  of  working,  and  a  certain 
relation  of  work  and  rest  periods  during  the  day  and 
the  year,  and  of  the  amount  of  one  kind  of  activity  as 
compared  with  another,  that  would  most  effectually 
economize  the  energy  and  health  of  each  individual. 
Every  adult  who  wishes  to  accomplish  as  much  as  pos- 
sible should,  with  far  more  care  than  he  plans  his  expen- 
diture of  money,  determine  what  are,  for  him,  the  most 


330  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

economical  ways  of  expending  energy.  A  programme 
for  a  school  should  be  adapted  to  the  largest  number 
possible,  then,  if  necessary,  some  individuals  should  be 
allowed  special  programmes. 

( 1 1 )  The  effects  of  different  kinds  of  activity  and  of 
chajtge  of  activity  upon  gejieral  and  local  fatigue  are 
great,  but  not  well  known,  because  the  results  of  experi- 
ments differ.  The  problem  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
general  and  special  training,  because  it  depends  upon  the 
effects  of  activity  of  one  part  upon  that  of  other  parts 
connected  with  it.  Some  investigators  find  muscular 
strength,  as  indicated  by  the  amount  gripped  with  the 
hand,  increased  after  mental  exertion  and  others  de- 
creased, and  the  same  of  mental  activity  after  muscular 
exertion.  One  of  the  causes  of  these  differences  is 
probably  a  difference  in  degree  of  fatigue.  Just  enough 
activity  to  get  "  well  warmed  up  "  naturally  has  upon 
other  activities  an  effect  just  the  opposite  of  fatigue 
almost  to  exhaustion.  The  change  in  circulation  in- 
volved in  change  of  activity  may  also  be  slow  or  quick 
in  taking  place,  and  hence  the  results  may  be  either 
favorable  or  unfavorable  at  once,  or  after  a  short  inter- 
val. Again,  if  activities  are  so  related  that  one  is  in- 
volved in  or  connected  with  the  other,  a  change  from 
one  to  the  other  will  not  be  favorable  either  to  good 
work  or  to  recovery  from  fatigue.  The  fact,  therefore, 
that  some  have  found  the  mental  power  of  school  chil- 
dren decreased  after  a  period  of  gymnastics,  does  not 
prove  that  an  interval  of  gymnastics  iniist  decrease  the 
power  of  children  to  do  mental  work  afterward,  but 
merely  that  it  may  do  so.  If  it  is  excessive,  or  if  it  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  close  attention  and  exact  movement 


ABNORMALITIES  33 1 

are  required,  it  is  almost  sure  to  do  so ;  but  if  it  is  slight 
and  so  free  as  to  require  little  or  no  attention,  and  the 
air  breathed  during  the  exercise  is  good,  the  respite 
from  mental  activity  and  the  quickening  of  the  circula- 
tion, increase  of  oxygen,  and  the  change  of  blood  supply 
to  different  parts,  can  scarcely  fail  to  increase  the  men- 
tal ability  of  the  children  during  the  next  period.  This, 
at  least,  is  very  certain :  children  fatigue  very  quickly 
unless  changes  in  kind  or  mode  of  activity  are  frequent. 

TESTS   AND    SIGNS   OF    FATIGUE 

Tests  that  would  be  of  value  to  the  ordinary  teacher 
in  determining  the  adaptability  of  her  daily  programme 
to  her  children,  and  in  discovering  exceptional  instances 
of  fatigue  in  the  school  or  in  individual  pupils,  have  been 
sought  for  several  years.  It  may  be  safely  said,  how- 
ever, that  no  method  of  discovering  fatigue,  that  can 
be  mechanically  appHed  by  a  teacher,  has  been  found. 
Such  tests  cannot  take  the  place  of  intelligent  common 
sense  and  good  judgment  on  her  part.  She  must  not 
only  be  able  to  note  the  decrease  in  rate  or  accuracy 
of  working,  but  must  also  learn  to  read  the  signs  of  on- 
coming fatigue,  in  the  pupil's  attitudes  and  movements. 

The  signs  that  appear  first  are  variation  and  wan- 
dering of  attention  or  increase  in  effort  to  attend,  or  in 
movements  of  a  fidgety  or  restless  character.  The  first 
is  an  indication  of  mental  fatigue,  and  the  last,  of  fatigue 
of  muscles  that  have  been  contracted  during  the  period 
of  attention.  Sometimes  the  increase  of  movement, 
especially  when  the  fatigue  is  considerable,  is  the  result 
of  increased  irritabihty  of  the  nerve  centres,  resulting  in 


332  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

continual  outflow  of  energy  and  many  rather  nervous 
responses  to  sudden  auditory  and  other  stimuli. 

Other  more  or  less  common  and  significant  signs  of 
fatigue  and  exhaustion  that  the  teacher  may  observe  or 
learn  by  inquiry  are  as  follows  :  jaded  expression  of  face, 
drooping  attitude,  paleness  or  redness  of  cheeks  or  tips 
of  ears  ;  dazed,  weary,  fixed,  or  lack-lustre  appearance  of 
the  eyes ;  sudden  movements,  grimaces,  frowning,  com- 
pression of  lips,  twitching  of  the  fingers,  face,  eyes,  or 
eyelids ;  unsteadiness  as  shown  in  bad  handwriting,  mis- 
pronunciation and  miscalling  of  words  in  talking  and 
reading;  headache,  cold  feet,  sleeplessness,  dreaming, 
teeth  grinding,  or  talking  in  sleep ;  irritable,  cross,  or 
peevish  disposition  or  moods ;  poor  hearing  and  imperfect 
discrimination  of  words,  sometimes  with  extreme  sensi- 
tiveness to  disturbing  sounds;  blurring  of  vision,  color 
blindness,  and  double  images ;  temporary  loss  of  memory 
of  familiar  or  recently  stated  names  or  facts  ;  and  failure 
of  mental  grasp,  as  indicated  by  inability  to  follow  a 
chain  of  reasoning  and  a  tendency  to  forget  what  one 
is  going  to  say. 

The  test  that  is  of  greatest  value  to  a  teacher  is  one 
that  shows  the  curve  of  fatigue  in  different  children,  be- 
cause this  throws  much  light  on  their  individuality.  One 
who  fatigues  very  rapidly  and  recovers  with  equal  sud- 
denness requires  quite  different  treatment  from  one  who 
fatigues  very  slowly  and  gradually. 

SOME   ABNORMAL    BRAIN    STATES 

The  brain  is  in  such  intimate  connection  with  all 
parts  of  the  body,  and  is  influenced  so  much  by  every 
physiological    process,    that    healthy    development   of 


ABNORMALITIES  333 

brain  and  body  are  closely  correlated.  Impulses  are 
continually  going  from  the  brain  to  every  muscle,  organ, 
and  gland,  as  well  as  from  each  part  of  the  body  to  the 
brain.  Imperfect  acti\'ity  of  the  brain  may,  therefore, 
be  shown  in  paleness  of  the  face,  slow  growth  of  the 
body,  and  imperfect  development  of  parts,  as  well  as  in 
attitude,  and  expression  of  face  and  movements ;  while, 
conversely,  a  defect  or  disturbance  in  any  part  of  the 
body  may  affect  brain  activity  unfavorably.  It  is  well, 
therefore,  to  notice  not  only  the  height  and  weight  of  a 
child  for  his  age,  and  the  color  of  the  skin,  but  also  the 
signs  of  imperfect  development  of  organs,  such  as  ir- 
regularities in  shape  of  the  head,  narrow  palate,  broad 
bridge  of  the  nose  with  small  openings  in  nostrils,  and 
imperfectly  developed  external  ear;  for,  as  Dr.  Warner 
has  shown,  these  are  often  associated  with  poor  nutri- 
tive condition  and  mental  dulness. 

Even  more  important  are  what  he  calls  "  7ierve  signs,'' 
which  indicate  the  amount  of  nervous  energy  being  sent 
to  the  different  muscles  of  the  body,  and  hence  the 
amount  and  regularity  of  the  activity  in  different  parts 
of  the  brain.  WrinkHng  of  the  forehead  is  always  in- 
dicative of  some  brain  disturbance,  as  are  also  irregular 
and  meaningless  movements  of  any  part  of  the  body, 
while  a  normal  brain  condition  is  shown  by  good 
attitude  and  well-balanced  and  coordinated  movements, 
because  this  means  that  all  parts  of  the  brain  are  func- 
tioning vigorously,  regularly,  and  harmoniously.  Some 
of  the  more  important  "  nerve  signs "  to  be  observed 
are  :  degree  of  erectness  of  body  and  head  in  standing  or 
sitting ;  ability  to  hold  hands  straight  out  and  evenly, 
palms  down,  without  throwing  the  shoulders  back  and 


334  FUNDAMENTALS  OF    CHILD   STUDY 

bending  the  spine  forward ;  and  to  keep  fingers  and 
thumb  straight  without  allowing  them  to  droop  or  to 
bend  back  too  much. 

The  effects  of  poor  nutrition  are  much  the  same  as  of 
general  fatigue,  as  far  as  the  power  to  do  the  work 
of  the  school  is  concerned.  The  common  signs  are 
paleness,  fulness  under  the  eyes,  fewness  or  irregularity 
of  spontaneous  movements,  and  lack  of  steadiness  of 
control,  or  power  of  continued  application.  Poor  nutri- 
tion may  be  the  result :  of  lack  of  sleep  ;  of  lack  of 
nutritious  food;  of  indigestion,  due  to  irregular  eating 
of  indigestible  food  ;  or  to  a  diseased  condition  otherwise 
produced.  In  all  such  cases  the  teacher  may  try  to 
secure  a  change  in  home  conditions  and  habits,  which 
will  make  it  possible  for  the  child  to  do  the  work  and 
conform  to  the  discipline  of  the  school,  or  this  failing, 
she  may  modify  the  requirements  for  the  child  so  that 
he  will  not  be  over-fatigued,  and  his  condition  made 
worse  rather  than  better  by  attendance  at  school. 

Nervousness  is  a  common  result  of  fatigue,  either 
general  or  local,  and  of  poor  nutrition.  Even  when  the 
nervousness  is  hereditary,  it  is  always  increased  by  these 
conditions.  Nervousness  is  a  condition  of  increased 
irritability  of  nerve  centres,  and  is  shown  by  excessive 
movement  in  response  to  stimuli,  especially  sudden 
sounds,  and  in  lack  of  steady  and  perfect  control  of 
movement.  Restlessness,  or  a  strong  tendency  to  move 
about  a  great  deal,  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  nervous- 
ness, though  one  is  due  to  excess  of  nervous  energy  and 
the  other  to  irritability  of  nerve  centres.  Either  ner- 
vousness or  restlessness  may  be  produced  by  trying  to 
keep  still  in  a  certain  position,  or  by  engaging  in  fine 


ABNORMALITIES  335 

work  that  necessitates  holding  the  larger  muscles  steady, 
and  moving  accurately  a  group  of  smaller  ones. 

The  strong,  restless  child  may  be  benefited  greatly, 
so  far  as  ability  to  behave  and  study  is  concerned,  by 
an  interval  of  vigorous  exercise ;  while  the  nervous  child 
would  be  exhausted  and  quite  unfitted  for  the  next  work 
by  such  vigorous  activity.  He  should  have  instead  mild 
exercise,  or  a  chance  for  quiet  rest.  It  is  especially 
important  that  the  nervous  child  should  not  be  scolded, 
found  fault  with,  or  in  any  way  induced  to  work  hard 
or  worry  about  his  work.  A  teacher  who  is  loud  of 
voice,  unattractive  in  dress,  and  sudden  and  variable  in 
manner  is  especially  irritating  to  a  nervous  child,  and 
may  be  the  chief  occasion  of  the  nervousness.  Although 
a  teacher  should  be  quick  to  note  signs  of  nervousness, 
she  should  avoid  making  the  child  conscious  of  his  con- 
dition. The  establishment  of  regular  habits  of  work 
and  of  rest  or  amusement  are  of  great  value  in  decreas- 
ing nervousness. 

Chorea  or  St.  Vitus  s  dance  is  somewhat  allied,  in  ap- 
pearance and  cause,  to  'nervousness ;  yet  it  is  a  disease 
rather  than  a  temporary  condition.  It  is  not,  like  ner- 
vousness, due  to  general  irritability  of  the  nerve  centres 
as  shown  by  increased  response  to  stimuli,  but  to  a 
more  or  less  spontaneous  and  abnormal  action  of  cer- 
tain nerve  centres  and  muscle  groups,  which  give  rise 
to  useless  and  meaningless  movements  of  certain  por- 
tions of  the  body,  and  produce  partial  or  total  inability 
to  perform  comparatively  simple  acts,  such  as  writing, 
buttoning  clothes,  touching  a  point  with  a  finger,  walk- 
ing, or  talking.  It  may  be  manifested  in  the  mild  form 
of  occasional  twitching  or  jerking  of  one  hand,  or  in  the 


336  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

severer  form  of  jerking  and  twitching  of  muscles  of  one- 
half  or  of  all  the  body.  In  mild  cases  it  may  be  de- 
tected by  holding  the  child's  hand  between  the  palms, 
and  noting  the  twitching,  or  by  observing  the  move- 
ments of  the  tongue. 

It  is  preeminently  a  disease  of  childhood,  for  34  per 
cent  of  the  cases  occur  between  five  and  ten  years  of 
age,  and  45  per  cent  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  fifteen. 
It  is  most  common  in  the  thirteenth  year  for  girls,  who 
are  about  twice  as  liable  to  it  as  boys.  The  largest  num- 
ber of  cases  occur  in  the  spring,  and  an  attack  usually 
lasts  from  four  to  ten  weeks.  It  is  frequently  associated 
with  rheumatism  and  heart  disease ;  but  its  most  fre- 
quent cause  is  excitement,  especially  fright.  Bright 
children  are  more  subject  to  it  than  dull  ones.  Worry, 
fright,  and  fatigue  make  it  worse,  and  often  bring  on 
another  attack  after  recovery. 

The  best  remedy  for  it  is  as  complete  rest  as  possible 
of  mind  and  body,  with  nutritious  and  easily  digested 
food.  If  possible,  the  child  should  be  kept  in  bed  day 
and  night  for  some  time,  even  though  he  is  at  first  rest- 
less. In  any  case  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  continue 
in  school,  unless  the  home  conditions  are  extremely  irri- 
tating and  unfavorable.  He  is  likely  to  be  made  worse 
by  the  effort  to  keep  up  with  his  class,  and  his  presence 
in  school  often  affects  unfavorably  nervous  and  chore- 
atic children,  especially  the  latter.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  chorea  may  be  produced  in  such  children  by  force 
of  suggestion.  When  there  are  children  in  the  school 
liable  to  chorea,  particular  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
excessive  fatigue,  excitement,  fright,  or  worry,  caused 
by  reproofs  or  severe  examinations. 


ABNORMALITIES  337 

STUTTERING   AND    STAMMERING 

Stuttering  is  sometimes  very  properly  classified  as  a 
form  of  chorea,  for  there  is  in  reality  a  spasmodic  con- 
traction or  twitching  of  some  of  the  muscles  concerned 
in  speech.  Stammering  is  want  of  proper  control  of  the 
muscles  of  speech  so  that  words  are  not  readily  pro- 
nounced or  the  sounds  given  in  the  proper  order  because 
of  inhibition  of  action  in  certain  centres.  If,  however,  a 
stammerer  becomes  embarrassed,  this  temporary  condi- 
tion of  nervousness  may  lead  to  spasmodic  activity 
of  the  centres  and  consequent  stuttering  which  may 
become  a  habit,  though  there  is  no  real  chorea. 

There  are  three  principal  groups  of  muscles  concerned 
in  speech:  (i)  the  muscles  of  breathing  which  control 
the  flow  of  air,  (2)  the  muscles  of  phonation  that  con- 
trol the  vocal  cords,  and  (3)  the  muscles  of  articulation 
which  are  concerned  in  moulding  the  sounds  in  the 
mouth.  Correct  pronunciation  requires  not  only  that 
all  of  these  muscles  shall  act  perfectly,  but  that  the 
different  groups  shall  act  harmoniously  and  in  the  right 
order.  Stuttering  and  stammering  are  caused  by  lack 
of  proper  harmony  as  to  amount,  time,  or  order  of  con- 
traction of  the  different  groups  of  muscles,  while  ordi- 
nary defects  in  pronunciation  are  usually  due  to  an 
improper  use  of  the  muscles  of  articulation  which  mould 
the  sounds  in  the  mouth.  Stuttering  and  stammering, 
therefore,  call  first  for  training  in  breathing,  then  in 
phonation,  and  then  in  these  processes  combined  with 
articulation,  rather  than  training  in  articulation   alone. 

A  habitual  stutterer  or  stammerer  should  not  con- 
tinue in  school,  because  the  embarrassment  of  trying  to 


338  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

recite  is  likely  to  increase  the  difficulty,  and  his  presence 
in  the  school  may  develop,  by  imitation  and  suggestion, 
a  similar  defect  in  other  children  who  have  the  slightest 
tendency  in  that  direction.  A  speciaHst,  rather  than  an 
ordinary  teacher,  is  needed  to  deal  with  such  defects 
when  they  have  become  habitual.  Incipient  cases  may, 
however,  often  be  prevented  from  developing  by  the 
wise  teacher,  though  perhaps  not  without  individual  work 
with  the  child  when  other  pupils  are  not  present.  Some 
drill  in  breathing  and  phonation  is  often  needed  ;  but  the 
principal  thing  is  to  free  the  child  from  the  embarrass- 
ment of  trying  to  say  what  he  cannot,  and  to  inspire 
him  with  confidence  in  his  ability  to  speak.  Sometimes 
concert  drills  in  breathing,  phonation,  and  articulation, 
alternating  with  the  same  exercise  by  designated  indi- 
viduals, will  be  of  advantage  to  the  whole  school  and  at 
the  same  time  completely  cure  the  incipient  stammerer 
or  stutterer. 

ADENOID    GROWTHS 

All  children  who  frequently  or  habitually  breathe 
through  the  mouth  are  likely  to  be  found,  upon  examina- 
tion, to  be  suffering  from  adenoid  growth  in  the  mouth 
or  nose.  If  the  child  is  also  subject  to  frequent  colds, 
and  shows  defects  of  pronunciation  and  of  hearing,  and 
if  he  appears  mentally  dull  or  slow  most  of  the  tim.e, 
adenoids  are  almost  surely  present.  These  growths  are 
apt  to  fill  with  blood  and  enlarge  when  the  child  takes 
cold.  The  mouth  breathing,  deafness,  and  mental  dul- 
ness  then  increase  because  of  the  obstruction  and  the 
pressure  on  the  nerves.  In  the  less  severe  cases  these 
phenomena   appear  only  when    the    child    has   a  cold, 


ABNORMALITIES  339 

while  in  more  severe  and  long-continued  cases  they  are 
chronic,  and  often  result  in  catarrh  and  lung  complaint. 
Inquiry  will  often  show  that  such  children  snore  at 
night,  sleep  with  the  mouth  open,  and  have  difficulty  in 
breathing. 

The  growths  are  readily  removed  by  a  surgeon,  and 
if  they  have  not  been  present  long  enough  to  produce 
more  than  local  and  functional  disorder,  recovery 
usually  occurs  within  a  week  or  two.  They  rarely  re- 
turn. A  complete  change  in  disposition  and  mental 
ability,  as  well  as  in  appearance  and  hearing,  sometimes 
results  within  a  few  weeks,  and  cases  are  known  of  chil- 
dren who  had  required  several  years  for  a  grade,  making 
several  grades  in  the  first  year  after  the  operation. 
Teachers  of  children  who  breathe  through  the  mouth 
should  always  advise  parents  to  consult  a  competent 
physician. 

DEFECTS    IN    HEARING 

Various  investigators  who  have  tested  large  numbers 
of  school  children  report  from  13  to  30  per  cent  as  defec- 
tive in  hearing  in  one  or  both  ears.  They  also  report 
that  the  greater  portion  of  these  defects,  including  some 
of  the  most  serious,  were  unsuspected  by  the  teacher.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  children  classed  as  peculiar  or  in- 
attentive by  the  teacher,  especially  if  they  have  a  dull  or 
heavy  look,  are  usually  found  to  be  defective  in  hearing. 
In  a  few  cases,  the  brightest  and  most  attentive  and 
alert  pupils  are  found  to  be  thus  defective.  Such  chil- 
dren interpret  gestures,  movements  of  lips  and  eyes, 
expression  of  face,  and  the  circumstances  so  readily, 
that  their  lack  of  hearing  is  not  observed  and  may  not 


340  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

be  discovered  by  special  tests  unless  great  care  is  exer- 
cised. 

Children  with  less  quick  and  active  minds  have  the 
intellect  dulled  instead  of  sharpened  by  the  defect. 
Sounds  are  less  loud  to  them  than  to  normal  children, 
hence  the  sensory  stimulus  to  attention  is  slighter,  and 
there  must  be,  therefore,  either  less  attention  on  their 
part  or  more  effort  of  attention  than  is  required  by  a 
normal  child.  If  they  do  not  hear  all  that  is  said,  they 
lose  the  connection  between  ideas  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, lose  interest,  which  is  the  necessary  stimulus  to 
attention.  In  subsequent  lessons  they  not  only  labor 
under  these  disadvantages,  but  they  lack  the  appercep- 
tive knowledge  given  in  previous  lessons ;  hence  it  is  not 
strange  that  they  become  habitually  inattentive  and 
apparently  hopelessly  dull.  Even  adults  who  are  sit- 
ting so  far  back  in  a  hall  that  they  cannot  hear  all  that 
a  speaker  says,  or  can  hear  only  with  effort,  nearly 
always  soon  cease  trying  and  become  inattentive ;  hence 
it  is  not  strange  that  children,  who,  through  defective 
hearing,  are  in  an  analogous  condition  all  the  time,  be- 
come inattentive,  and  either  troublesome  or  apathetic. 

The  moral  effects  are  often  worst  when  children  are 
defective  in  one  ear  only,  or  a  part  of  the  time  only  ;  for 
they  are  much  more  likely  to  be  misunderstood  by 
teachers  and  unjustly  blamed  for  not  paying  attention 
or  not  doing  as  directed,  since  the  teacher  knows  that 
they  have  done  better,  and  thinks  they  can  do  better  now 
if  they  will. 

There  are  various  causes  of  poor  hearing,  among 
which  are  adenoid  growths,  scarlet  fever,  and  measles. 
When  there  is  evidence  of  adenoid  growths,  the  parents 


ABNORMALITIES  34 1 

should  consult  a  physician;  while  the  teacher,  after  a 
pupil  has  been  out  with  scarlet  fever  or  measles,  should 
be  careful  to  notice  if  there  is  impairment  of  hearing  or 
sight. 

DEFECTS   OF    SIGHT 

The  per  cent  of  children  with  defective  sight,  espe- 
cially in  the  higher  grades,  is  much  greater  than  with 
defective  hearing,  at  least  so  far  as  the  tests  show.  It  is 
possible,  however,  to  test  the  eye  more  accurately  than 
the  ear,  and  few  eyes  are  absolutely  perfect.  It  is  com- 
mon in  this  country  to  find  from  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of 
the  children  with  eyes  sufficiently  defective  to  require 
attention. 

The  trouble  with  children's  eyes  is  not  usually  due 
to  loss  of  elasticity  of  the  lens  (though  that  sometimes 
happens  to  children  who  look  at  near  objects  a  great 
deal),  but  to  imperfect  form  of  the  eye.  The  most 
common  defects  are:  (i)  too  great  length  from  front  to 
back  of  the  eye ;  (2)  too  short  a  distance  from  front  to 
back ;  (3)  imperfect  curvature  of  the  eye.  When  the 
distance  is  too  great,  the  rays  from  distant  objects  are 
brought  to  a  focus  in  front  of  the  retina,  and  conse- 
quently distant  objects  cannot  be  seen  plainly.  In  other 
words,  the  owner  of  the  eye  is  near-sighted,  or  myopic, 
and  can  see  plainly  only  near  objects.  When  the  dis- 
tance from  the  front  of  the  eye  to  the  retina  is  too  short, 
the  rays  from  all  objects  are  brought  to  a  focus  behind 
the  retina,  and  none  of  them,  especially  the  nearer  ones, 
can  be  seen  plainly  except  by  the  action  of  the  accommo- 
dating muscle  that  allows  the  lens  to  become  more 
curved  so  as  to  refract  the  light  more.     It  is  often  diffi- 


342  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

cult  for  this  muscle  to  produce  enough  accommodation  to 
make  near  objects  plainly  visible.  Such  an  eye  is  far- 
sighted  (properly  speaking,  hypermetrophic),  and  the 
owner  needs  convex  glasses,  or  those  that  are  thicker  in 
the  middle ;  while  the  one  who  is  near-sighted  needs 
concave  glasses,  or  those  that  are  thicker  at  the  edges, 
to  correct  his  defect. 

When  the  front  part  of  the  ball  of  the  eye  is  not  per- 
fectly round,  but  is  curved  or  flattened  more  in  one  part 
than  in  another,  some  of  the  rays  of  light  from  an  object 
will  be  brought  to  a  focus  on  the  retina  and  some  will 
not;  hence,  some  parts  of  the  object  will  be  plainly  seen 
and  other  parts  will  not.  Often  the  curvature  of  the 
eye  is  such  that  when  it  is  accommodated  for  the  middle 
portion  and  sides  of  the  object,  the  top  and  the  bottom 
will  not  be  plainly  seen,  and  when  it  is  accommodated 
for  the  upper  and  lower  parts,  the  sides  are  not  clearly 
seen.  No  matter  how  much  the  person  may  strain 
his  eye,  he  cannot  see  the  whole  of  the  object  plainly 
at  once,  or  else  if  the  whole  is  seen,  it  is  distorted, 
as  you  may  have  observed  objects  to  be  when  seen 
through  a  defective  window  glass.  This  defect  of  the 
eye  is  called  astigmatism  and  it  may  be  corrected  by 
wearing  glasses  that  are  curved  where  the  eyeball  is 
flattened,  so  that  all  the  rays  of  light  from  an  object 
passing  through  the  glass  and  the  eye  are  bent  equally, 
and  thus  brought  to  a  focus  at  the  same  point. 

When  the  eyes  are  defective  they  are  liable  to  become 
worse  the  more  they  are  used,  for  the  muscles  of  accom- 
modation and  the  optic  nerve  are  subjected  to  an  un- 
usual strain,  and  are  likely  to  be  weakened.  The  optic 
nerves  are  the  largest  in  the  body ;  hence,  if  they  are 


ABNORMALITIES  343 

Strained,  the  whole  nervous  system  is  frequently  affected. 
Defective  eyes  are  therefore  the  most  common  cause  of 
nervousness  and  headache.  In  school  the  nervousness 
is  frequently  increased  by  inability  to  do  the  work  prop- 
erly, owing  to  poor  sight,  or  because  of  fatigue  caused 
by  the  effort  to  see  clearly.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
that  children  should  be  observed  and  tested  in  school, 
and  parents  notified  of  serious  defects  in  sight. 

Exercises  for  Students 

1.  As  a  means  of  demonstrating  a  number  of  truths  regarding 
fatigue,  the  following  experiment  should  be  tried  and  fully  dis- 
cussed. Place  the  hand  on  the  table  with  the  fingers  and  thumb 
touching  it,  then  tap  with  the  forefinger  as  rapidly  as  possible  for 
three  or  four  minutes.  Make  two  such  tests  at  different  times  :  one 
in  which  the  hand  is  not  moved,  and  there  is  no  variation  in  direction 
or  height  of  movement,  and  no  pause  for  rest ;  and  another  in  which 
the  hand  may  be  moved,  and  the  tapping  varied  at  will.  Notice  the 
difference  in  feeling  of  weariness  and  difterence  in  total  number  of 
taps  made  each  time.  Variation  in  rate  of  tapping  may  be  deter- 
mined objectively  by  having  time  called  every  ten  seconds,  while  an 
observer  for  each  tapper  counts  the  number  of  taps  made  in  each 
period.  From  these  figures,  individual  fatigue  curves  may  be  con- 
structed. 

2.  Illustrate  from  other  experiences  and  observations  any  laws 
of  fatigue  not  clearly  brought  out  in  the  above  experiment  and  dis- 
cussion. 

3.  Specific  instances  of  defects  of  the  kinds  named  in  the  text 
should  be  observed  and  described  if  possible. 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

On  the  general  subject  of  fatigue  and  conservation  of  mental  energy, 
see  Lombard,  A7n.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  24-42 ;  Dressier, 
Ped.  San.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  102-106;  Hodge,  Atn.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol. 
II,  pp.  376-402;  S.  W.  Mitchell;  Wear  and  Tear]  Partridge, 


344  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  387-394;  Thorndike,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol. 
VII,  pp.  467-482,  547-579;  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  384-395.  553-564; 
Squire,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  X,  pp.  248-267 ;  Moore,  Vale  Studies, 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  68-96;  Lukens,  Am.  Phys.  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 
19-29,  121-135  ;  O'Shea,  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  Vol.  LV,  pp.  511-524; 
Jr.  Ped.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  195-230;  Burnham,  Scribner's  Mag., 
Vol.  V,  pp.  306-314 ;  Annie  Pay  son  Call,  Power  Through  Repose. 

On  the  fatigue  of  children,  see  Report  Com.  Ed.,  1 894-1 895,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  449-460;  1895-1896,  Vol.  II,  pp.  1175-1198;  O'Shea,  Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  Vol.  LI,  pp.  648-662  ;  Patrick,  Iowa  l/?Uv.  Studies, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  TJ-^T,  Barnes,  Studies,  Vol.  I,  pp.  163-170;  Bellei, 
Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XXV,  pp.  364-386;  Kratz,  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp. 
1090-1096;  Baker,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  34-39- 

On  nervousness  and  other  common  defects  of  school  children,  see 
Warner,  The  Study  of  Children;  Rowe,  The  Physical  Child; 
Krohn,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  211-214 ;  Sudduth,  Ch.  S.  Mo., 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  540-543  ;  Talbot,  Tracts.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  75-90;  Wolfe,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  22,  69,  157,  161, 
274 ;  Royce,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  209-222,  322-331,  449-463  ; 
Meyer,  Trans.  III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  I,  No.  i,  pp.  48-58 ;  Camp- 
bell, Ch.  S.  Mo.  and/r.  Adoles.,  May,  1 901,  pp.  433-440  ;  Morey- 
Errant,  Ch.  S.  Mo.  and /r.  Adoles.,  May,  1901,  pp.  441-448; 
Zirkle,  "  Medical  Inspection  in  Schools,''  C/niv.  of  Colo.  Studies, 
June,  1902,  pp.  66. 

On  stuttering  and  other  language  defects,  see  Hartwell,  N.  E.  A., 
1893,  pp.  739-749;  Lukens,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  39-44' 

On  defective  hearing,  Chrisman,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  397-441  : 
Percy,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  97-109;  Krauskopf,  Jr.  Ch.  and 
Adoles.,  April,  1902,  pp.  100-106;  Macmillan,  N.  E.  A.,  1901, 
pp.  880-888. 

On  defective  vision,  Allport,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  150-159; 
Whitcomb,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  IX,  p.  237 ;  Wolfe,  N.  W.  Mo., 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  35-39;  and  reports,  such  as  those  of  Christopher 
and  Smedley. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

CHILD   STUDY   APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS 
PURPOSE    OF    CHILD    STUDY    BY    TEACHERS 

It  should  be  understood  at  the  outset,  that  teachers 
cannot,  and  should  not  be  expected  to  make  investiga- 
tions with  the  purpose  of  discovering  new  truths  for  the 
science  of  psychology  and  child  study.  It  is  true  that 
a  teacher  may,  and  sometimes  should,  cooperate  with  a 
speciaUst  in  gathering  data  for  scientific  purposes.  She 
may  also  profitably  repeat  the  experiments  of  specialists, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  making  or  verifying  generaliza- 
tions concerning  all  children,  but  to  learn  to  what  extent 
the  children  under  her  charge,  with  their  peculiar  heredi- 
tary tendencies  and  local  environing  conditions,  conform 
to  or  vary  from  the  usual  type,  and  consequently  to  learn 
how  far  the  general  principles  indicated  by  the  spe- 
cialist may  profitably  be  applied  to  those  particular 
children. 

Such  a  study  carefully  made  also  gives  a  teacher  a 
more  intimate  and  a  broader  knowledge  of  child  nature, 
and  a  much  better  comprehension  and  appreciation  of 
the  results  of  scientific  investigations.  The  self-culture 
thus  obtained  might  of  itself  be  sufficient  justification 
for  making  such  a  study  if  the  test  is  also  a  good  exer- 
cise for  the  children.  Especially  is  this  true  of  those 
who  are  preparing  to  teach.     The  primary  purpose  of 

346 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  347 

a  teacher,  however,  in  studying  children,  whether  as  a 
school  or  individually,  should  not  be  to  promote  the 
science  or  her  own  self-culture,  but  to  get  facts  that 
will  aid  in  the  culture  and  training  of  the  children  under 
her  charge. 

STUDYING    AND    MANAGING   A    SCHOOL    AS    A    WHOLE 

A  teacher  may  in  an  indirect  way  make  a  valuable 
study  of  a  school  before  she  sees  it.  Knowing  the 
grade  she  is  to  teach,  she  can  infer  the  age  of  the  major- 
ity of  the  children.  From  her  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples of  child  study,  she  will  know  what  characteristics 
are  likely  to  be  prominent  at  that  age.  This  will  give 
her  some  idea  of  the  school,  wherever  it  is  located.  The 
next  step  will  be  to  study  about  the  children  and  their 
surroundings. 

If  the  children  are  nearly  all  of  one  or  two  nationali- 
ties, this  will  tell  her  something  about  them.  Physical 
and  social  heredity  will  inevitably  endow  them  with  the 
principal  characteristics  of  the  nation  to  which  they 
belong.  Any  knowledge,  therefore,  the  teacher  may 
acquire  of  these  nationahties  will  be  helpful  to  her  in 
understanding  the  children. 

A  knowledge  of  the  occupations,  social  organizations, 
and  amttsements  of  the  people  of  the  school  district  will 
also  be  helpful.  The  imitative  instinct  makes  it  abso- 
tutely  certain  that  the  children  will  take  into  themselves 
many  phases  of  the  social  life  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded. It  is  almost  equally  sure  that  the  children 
will  know  much  of  the  objects  of  nature  and  art  by 
which  they  are  surrounded,  and  little  of  those  of  other 
places  unless  they  have  travelled.      The   fundamental 


348  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

apperceptive  knowledge  possessed  by  the  children  may 
therefore  be  determined  by  studying  their  natural  as 
well  as  their  social  surroundings. 

To  know  something  of  the  school  knowledge  and 
training  possessed  by  the  children,  the  course  of  study 
and  methods  of  teaching  in  the  city  or  district  may  be 
studied.  With  some  allowances  for  forgetting,  pretty 
shrewd  guesses  as  to  what  the  children  will  know  can 
then  be  made. 

The  schoolroom,  with  all  its  possibilities  for  heating, 
lighting,  ventilating,  seating,  illustrating,  and  decorating, 
should  be  studied  as  an  important  factor  in  determining 
what  may  be  done  with  the  school  that  is  to  inhabit  it. 
Books  and  apparatus  should  also  be  considered  in  this 
connection. 

When  the  children  appear  and  begin  their  work,  the 
teacher  may  study  them  in  a  direct  way  by  tests  and  ob- 
servations, and  thus  supplement  and  perfect  her  previous 
conclusions.  The  majority  of  the  children  may  prove 
to  be  either  young  or  old  for  their  grade,  and  their 
development  may  be  greater  or  less  than  that  usual  for 
their  ages,  though  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  their 
social  surroundings  should  have  prepared  her  for  such 
variations  as  the  latter.  Their  knowledge  of  natural 
surroundings  and  of  school  studies,  when  tested  by 
reviews  and  questions,  may  also  prove  greater  or  less 
than  was  anticipated. 

While  studying  the  characteristics  of  the  school  to 
determine  what  kind  of  regulations  to  make,  the  teacher 
should  notice  how  the  children  are  affected  by  various 
forms  of  praise,  reproof,  or  suggestion,  in  order  that  she 
may  know  how  to  best  carry  out  these  regulations.     In 


CHILD   STUDY   APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  349 

the  case  of  a  young  teacher  it  will  usually  be  safer  at 
first  to  be  a  little  too  strict  rather  than  too  lenient. 

She  should  not  only  observe  the  children  during  school 
hours,  but  seek  to  know  how  they, spend  their  time  when 
not  in  school,  especially  what  they  do  in  the  way  of  work, 
play,  or  reading.  Language  exercises  calling  for  infor- 
mation along  these  lines  may  be  made  very  interesting  to 
the  children  and  valuable  to  the  teacher  who  wishes  her 
teaching  to  correct  and  supplement  the  incidental  edu- 
cation given  by  the  community.  Such  topics  as  the  fol- 
lowing, assigned  at  not  too  frequent  intervals,  will  give 
the  teacher  a  good  idea  of  the  activities  and  influences 
affecting  the  children  when  not  in  school.  "  What  I  Hke 
best  to  read,  and  why,"  "What  I  did  last  Saturday" 
(written  on  Monday),  "What  I  did  during  vacation" 
(written  just  after  vacation),  "What  I  am  going  to  do  this 
vacation  "  (just  before  vacation),  "  What  I  do  on  school 
days  outside  of  school  hours,"  "  The  games  that  I  Hke  to 
play  best,  and  why,"  "  The  best  time  I  ever  had,"  "  What 
I  am  going  to  do  when  grown,  and  why,"  "  Five  things 
that  are  bad  and  wrong,  and  why,"  "Five  things  that 
are  good  and  right,  and  why,"  "  Some  good  acts  and 
some  bad  acts  that  I  have  seen  this  week,"  "  My 
experience  in  getting,  keeping,  and  spending  money," 
"What  I  would  do  with  it  if  I  received  fifty  cents 
a  day  for  a  month,"  "Which  I  would  rather  have,  five 
dollars  to-day,  fifty  dollars  a  year  from  to-day,  or  five  * 
hundred  dollars  in  ten  years,  and  why,"  "  The  kind  of 
a  playmate  or  chum  I  like  best,"  "Pets  that  I  have 
had  and  that  I  wish  to  have." 

When  a  teacher  first  begins  her  work  in  a  school,  the 
children  are  slow  in  understanding  her  questions   and 


350  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

directions,  and  it  is  generally  recognized  that  it  takes 
time  for  teacher  and  pupils  to  get  used  to  each 
other.  This  "  getting  used  to  each  other "  means  not 
merely  greater  familiarity,  but  the  formation  of  habits 
by  the  pupils,  in  accordance  with  the  teacher's  habits 
of  doing  things  and  of  expecting  them  to  be  done. 
Many  of  these  are  very  obvious,  such  as  signals  for 
leaving  the  room,  asking  questions,  position  assumed  in 
reading,  writing,  and  putting  away  or  getting  books  and 
material,  answering  questions,  etc.,  and  it  probably  is 
well  for  the  teacher  to  consciously  direct  the  formation 
of  such  of  these  formal  school  habits  as  she  thinks 
necessary,  in  order  that  they  may  be  quickly  estab- 
Hshed  and  require  little  subsequent  attention.  Direc- 
tion in  forming  these  habits  should  consist  not  so  much 
in  description  of  the  thing  to  be  done  as  of  practice  in 
doing  it  at  the  proper  time. 

The  pupils'  modes  of  observing  and  thinking  will  be 
affected  by  the  way  in  which  she  questions,  analyzes, 
and  outlines,  their  feelings  and  sentiments  influenced 
by  those  she  holds  and  expresses  consciously  and  uncon- 
sciously, and  their  attentiveness,  carefulness,  and  per- 
sistency, by  her  example  and  her  requirements.  Every 
teacher  should  note  the  habits  of  thinking,  feehng,  and 
working,  common  to  the  school,  that  have  been  formed 
by  the  social  environment  and  by  previous  school 
experiences  and  conditions,  and  should  consciously 
strive  to  correct  the  undesirable  ones  and  develop  the 
good  ones. 

In  attempting  to  break  habits  already  formed,  the 
teacher  should  remember  that  a  habit  is  a  tendency  to 
do  a  certain  thing  under  certain  conditions^  and  hence  that 


CHILD   STUDY   APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  351 

a  change  in  the  conditions  giving  rise  to  a  habit  will 
often  change  the  habit.  It  is  also  much  easier  to  learn 
to  do  something  else  under  the  conditions  calling  forth 
a  habit  than  to  refrain  from  doing  anything,  or,  in  other 
words,  it  is  easier  to  change  a  habit  than  to  break  it. 
It  is  therefore  often  wisest  to  say  nothing  about  unde- 
sirable habits,  but  to  change  the  conditions  under  which 
they  are  performed,  or  to  set  the  children  to  doing  some- 
thing that  will  erelong  take  the  place  of  the  undesir- 
able habit.  For  example,  children  who  are  led  to  become 
interested  in  hearing  or  doing  something  do  not  need 
to  be  told  not  to  gaze  around  the  room  or  out  of  doors ; 
and  those  who  are  learning  to  observe  or  care  for 
animals,  will  not  long  continue  to  practise  cruelty 
toward   them. 

A  teacher  should  be  careful  that  the  children  do  not 
get  into  the  habit  of  holding  her,  instead  of  themselves, 
responsible  for  order.  Very  often  they  wait  for  a  look 
or  a  word  that  has  become  a  customary  signal  for  them 
as  individuals  to  do  certain  things.  They  are  like  a 
little  three-year-old  girl,  who,  after  being  reminded 
many  times  to  stop  before  drinking  her  milk  all  up, 
said,  when  not  so  reminded,  **  Mamma,  why  don't  you 
tell  me  to  stop  ? " 

In  directing  the  formation  of  habits  in  which  improve- 
ment with  practice  is  desired,  as  in  learning  to  write 
and  draw,  the  teacher  should  be  satisfied  with  the  work 
as  long  as  it  shows  improvement,  but  should  be  very 
careful  when  improvement  stops,  because  one  of  two 
undesirable  results  is  likely  to  appear ;  either  the  habit 
with  its  imperfect  execution  becomes  fixed  by  repetition, 
so  that  after  a  time  it  is  almost  impossible  to  change 


352  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

it;  or  else  when  the  volitional  effort  to  do  good 
work  decreases,  the  execution  begins  to  revert  back 
to  a  less  developed  stage  at  which  it  may  then  be- 
come fixed.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  doing 
a  thing  well  under  one  set  of  conditions  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  it  will  be  done  equally  well  under 
others ;  hence  a  pupil  who  writes  well  when  writing  in 
a  copy  book,  may  write  very  poorly  when  trying  to 
express  his  ideas  in  a  language  lesson.  The  teacher 
should,  therefore,  see  that  habits  are  perfected  under 
the  conditions  likely  to  exist  when  they  are  to  be  used. 

After  a  teacher  becomes  quite  famihar  with  her 
school,  she  still  needs  to  study  it  to  know  what  to  do 
in  special  circumstances.  She  must  be  quick  to  dis- 
cover signs  of  nervousness,  restlessness,  fatigue,  or 
loss  of  interest ;  thorough  in  searching  for  the  causes, 
whether  they  be  in  the  physical  conditions  of  the  room 
or  in  something  that  has  been  done  either  in  or  out  of 
school ;  and  fertile  in  expedients  for  removing  or  counter- 
acting undesirable  influences. 

If  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  should  be  in  herself,  she 
should  be  no  less  persistent  in  removing  it.  It  is  more 
important  to  the  school  that  the  teacher  shall  keep  her- 
self in  good  health  and  free  from  fatigue,  nervousness, 
and  worry  than  it  is  that  she  shall  correct  papers  or 
even  teach  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

If  she  is  careless  and  unsystematic  in  her  work,  no 
amount  of  talking  about  neatness  and  order  will  make 
the  children  careful  and  orderly.  If  she  calls,  in  a  loud 
and  irritated  manner,  for  them  to  be  quiet,  she  is  really 
giving  them  a  suggestion  to  become  more  noisy.  If  she 
is  afraid  the  children  will  not  obey  her,  the  idea  of  dis- 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  353 

obeying  is  at  once  suggested  to  them  by  her  voice  and 
manner.  Since  natural  signs  have  greater  suggestive 
force  for  children  than  words,  it  is  not  strange  that 
they  are  more  influenced  by  the  actions,  manner,  and 
tone  of  voice  of   the  teacher   than  by  what  she  says. 

The  effects  upon  the  school  of  suggestion  and  imita- 
tion among  the  pupils  themselves  are  also  frequently 
very  marked. 

The  teacher  should,  therefore,  study  closely  the 
social  relations  of  her  pupils,  observing  who  seem  to 
be  leaders  in  the  public  sentiment  of  the  school,  and 
who  are  merely  imitators  and  followers,  then  she  should 
make  a  special  effort  to  understand  the  leaders  so 
as  to  influence  them,  and  in  that  way  to  direct  the 
sentiment  and  actions  of  the  school.  She  should  ar- 
range the  seating  of  pupils  also,  so  that  there  will  be  as 
little  temptation  as  possible  to  visiting  or  other  disturb- 
ance. All  cases  of  chumming  and  rivalry  in  individuals 
or  of  groups  should  be  noted.  In  many  schools  it  will 
be  found  that  there  are  one  or  more  societies  formed  by 
the  children  themselves,  which  not  infrequently  have 
special  badges  or  passwords,  and  sometimes  an  extensive 
secret  language.  The  teacher  will  find  it  interesting 
and  profitable  to  become  familiar  with  all  these  social 
relations  of  the  little  society  of  which  she  is  the  leader, 
and  to  note  how  the  children  are  being  influenced  by 
them.  She  should  seek  to  use,  rather  than  to  suppress, 
such  social  activities.  Individual  rivalries  may  not  be 
ignored,  but  should  not  be  encouraged ;  while  rivalry 
between  groups  may  be  profitably  encouraged  when  it 
leads  to  better  cooperation  of  the  members  of  each 
group,  and  is  good-natured. 


354  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

STUDY   AND   TREATMENT    OF    INDIVIDUAL   CHILDREN 

After  the  teacher  has  become  so  well  acquainted  with 
her  school  that  she  knows  how  to  regulate  it,  and  con- 
duct the  classes  to  the  best  advantage  of  the  majority  of 
the  children,  she  should  seek  to  know  more  of  the  ex- 
ceptional and  peculiar  children  whose  needs  are  not 
being  fully  met,  and  to  find  ways  of  meeting  their  needs 
without  interfering  with  the  general  school  and  class 
work.  In  doing  this,  she  should  never  assent  for  one 
moment  to  the  idea  that  all  the  children  must  be  treated 
exactly  alike.  Everything  she  does  should  be  for  the 
good  of  each  child,  whether  it  be  the  assignment  of  a 
long  or  a  short  lesson,  or  the  giving  of  a  punishment  or 
a  reward.  What  will  be  the  best  training  or  the  most 
effective  corrective  for  one  may  not  be  for  another; 
hence  it  is  her  duty  to  treat  each  pupil  in  the  way  that 
will  cause  him  to  improve  most. 

In  her  study  of  the  school  as  a  whole,  the  teacher  will 
have  noticed  children  who  show  marked  variations  from 
the  average  in  many  ways.  There  are  undoubtedly 
causes  for  each  peculiarity,  and  the  teacher  should  at 
once  seek  to  discover  them.  She  should  inquire  into 
the  past  history  and  present  conditions  and  surround- 
ings to  discover  how  far  the  child's  peculiarities  may  be 
accounted  for  by  heredity,  sickness,  accidents,  previous 
school  training,  special  home  conditions,  life  outside  of 
school,  or  present  defects.  Where  the  peculiarities  are 
undesirable,  their  causes  should  be  removed  or  counter- 
acted as  far  as  possible.  Where  they  are  in  the  nature 
of  special  interests  or  powers,  the  teacher  should  favor 
their  development  so  far  as  may  be  without  interfering 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  355 

with  the  development  of  other  phases  of  the  child's 
nature. 

Much  ingenuity  is  required  to  keep  all  the  members  of 
an  average  class  interested  and  actively  employed  all  of 
the  time,  because  of  difference  in  rate  and  accuracy 
of  working ;  yet,  if  this  is  not  done  successfully,  some 
children  are  confused,  others  waste  their  time,  and  dis- 
order is  almost  sure  to  appear. 

When,  in  addition  to  what  may  be  called,  for  want  of 
a  better  term,  "  average  pupils,"  the  teacher  has  many 
who  are  peculiar,  defective,  abnormal,  or  exceptional 
in  some  way,  her  difficulties  are  greatly  increased.  In 
almost  every  school  there  are  children  who  can  get  little 
or  nothing  from  the  regular  class  work.  Teachers,  with 
the  large  number  of  pupils  they  usually  have,  cannot 
possibly  meet  fully  the  needs  of  such  children  without 
sacrificing  the  rest  of  the  school. 

It  is  therefore  desirable  that,  in  every  city,  ungraded 
rooms  for  individual  instruction  should  be  provided. 
About  one  room  in  every  ten  should  be  of  this  kind. 
Two  types  of  ungraded  schools  are  desirable :  one  for 
primary  children,  who  are  so  defective  or  peculiar  that 
they  cannot  get  started  to  learning  readily  in  an  ordi- 
nary class  ;  and  one  for  grammar-grade  children  who  are 
exceptional,  principally  in  their  rate  of  working  or  knowl- 
edge of  special  subjects,  and  who,  therefore,  need  special 
training  in  one  or  more  lines  in  order  to  be  fitted  for  the 
next  grade.  With  such  provision  many  peculiar  and  back- 
ward children  soon  show  themselves  capable  of  great 
improvement,  and  children  who  have  in  some  way  got 
behind  in  one  or  more  subjects  are  enabled  to  pass 
from  grade  to  grade  without  unnecessary  loss  of  time. 


356  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Where  such  schools  are  not  provided,  some  children 
are  sure  to  suffer,  and  some  of  the  best  teachers  to 
worry,  because  of  the  impossibility  of  meeting  both 
class  and  individual  needs. 


OUTLINES    FOR    OBSERVATION 

Countless  outlines  and  directions  .for  the  study  of  chil- 
dren may  be  made,  and  have  been  made.  Though  many 
are  so  complete  as  to  be  cumbersome,  none  of  them  are 
exactly  suited  to  indicate  the  special  peculiarity  of  every 
child.  Minute  analysis  of  the  characteristics  of  individ- 
uals is  interesting  to  a  certain  extent,  and  has  some  value 
as  training  for  the  teacher,  but  she  gains  little  from  fre- 
quent attempts  to  analyze  minutely  the  characteristics  of 
all  her  pupils.  Usually,  she  has  only  a  few  exceptional 
pupils  that  need  much  special  study  and  treatment.  Ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  a  few  pupils,  who  are  all-round  puz- 
zles, the  teacher  generally  needs  to  study  only  the  causes 
and  effects  of  one  or  two  fundamental  peculiarities  as  a 
means  of  knowing  what  to  do  for  a  child.  The  signifi- 
cance of  any  peculiarity  depends  not  so  much  upon 
its  prominence,  as  compared  with  that  characteristic  in 
other  children,  as  upon  its  prominence  as  compared 
with  other  qualities  possessed  by  the  same  individual. 
Even  exact  physical  data,  such  as  the  lung  capacity  of 
a  ten-year-old  boy,  have  no  significance  until  you  know 
whether  the  boy  is  large  or  small  for  his  age.  The 
teacher,  therefore,  needs  to  compare  the  child's  charac- 
teristics with  the  others  that  he  possesses  to  determine 
their  harmony  and  unity  rather  than  simply  to  compare 
them  with  those  of  his  companions. 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED  IN  SCHOOLS  357 

The  outlines  given  below  are  not  intended  to  be  in  any- 
way complete,  but  merely  to  be  suggestive  of  what  is 
likely  to  be  most  significant  regarding  a  school,  reci- 
tation, or  individual. 

The  following  questions  prepared  for  normal  students 
about  to  enter  the  practice  schools  are  good  ones  for  any 
teacher  to  ask  soon  after  taking  charge  of  a  new  school. 

I.     OUTLINE    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    A    NEW   SCHOOL 

1 .  Should  there  be  any  change  in  the  light  or  ventilation  of  the 
room,  or  in  the  seats  of  the  pupils?  What  portions  of  the  black- 
board are  clearly  visible  from  the  different  parts  of  the  room? 

2.  Is  the  school  as  a  whole  about  the  average  for  schools  of  this 
grade  in  age,  size,  ability,  and  advancement? 

3.  Are  there  any  pupils  who  are  much  behind  or  ahead  in  any  of 
these  respects,  and  if  so,  what  explanation  of  such  variations  can  you 
give? 

4.  Are  there  any  pupils  who  show  signs  of  poor  health,  nervous- 
ness, defects  of  eye  and  ear,  and  if  so,  what  are  the  signs  you  have 
noticed  ?     What  can  the  teacher  do  for  such  pupils  ? 

5.  What  do  you  notice  in  the  habits  and  disposition  of  the  school 
as  a  whole  that  is  good,  and  what  that  needs  improvement  ?  What 
improvement  do  you  expect  to  try  to  make? 

6.  Answer  the  same  question  as  in  5  for  individual  children  who 
have  habits  and  dispositions  different  from  the  rest  of  the  school. 

7.  What  subjects  are  the  pupils  most  interested  in  and  what 
least? 

8.  The  same  questions  as  in  7  for  individual  pupils  differing  from 
the  rest. 

9.  Make  a  special  study  of  any  child  who  seems  to  be  a  leader  of 
a  part  or  all  the  school,  trying  to  determine  how  he  leads  his  com- 
panions, and  how  he  can  best  be  led  by  the  teacher. 

The  following  outlines  are  intended  to  be  used  by  normal  stu- 
dents who  are  preparing  to  teach,  but  more  experienced  teachers 
may  find  them  of  some  value. 


358  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 


II.     SUGGESTIONS    FOR   OBSERVING    INDIVIDUAL    PUPILS 

In  getting  acquainted  with  children  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  note 
facts  and  form  judgments  in  regard  to  the  following  points  so  far  as 
you  have  opportunity  to  do  so. 

1.  Physical  Characteristics. 
Size  of  child  for  his  age. 
Health. 

Evidence  of,  or  freedom  from,  nervousness. 
Characteristics  of  attitudes  and  movements. 
Condition  of  eyes  and  ears. 

2.  School  Work. 

Work  as  compared  with  the  average  of  his  class. 
Success  in  different  subjects. 
Chief  merits  or  defects  as  a  pupil. 

3.  Life  outside  of  School. 
Character  of  his  home. 

Occupations  outside  of  school  in  the  way  of  studying,  reading, 

working,  or  playing. 
Characteristics  shown  outside  of  school  different  from  those  in 

school. 

4.  Mental  Characteristics. 

Ability,  quickness,  and  accuracy  in  perceiving,  imaging,  remember- 
ing, and  reasoning. 

Emotional  characteristics  as  manifested  in  fear,  anger,  jealousy, 
bashfulness,  pride,  and  interests. 

Effect  of  praise  and  blame. 

Character  of  attention^  reflex  or  voluntary,  continuous  or  inter- 
mittent, intense  or  slight. 

Actions^  impulsive  or  deliberate. 

Persistency  or  lack  of  it  in  working.     How  best  appealed  to 
What  is  needed  most,  stimulation,  repression,  or  direction? 

Evidence  of  his  tendency  to  lead  or  to  follow  and  imitate. 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  359 


III.    SUGGESTIONS    FOR    OBSERVING   A    RECITATION 

Is  the  lesson  (a)  a  review  and  drill  lesson,  or  (d)  the  presentation 

of  new  truths? 
If  (a),  is  the  chief  aim  to  fix  in  memory  or  to  gain  speed  and 

accuracy  in  what  is  already  known  ? 
Does  the  teacher  rely  upon  many  repetitions  for  her  results,  or 

does  she  depend  more  upon  intensity  of  interest  ? 
To  what  extent  does  interest  and  success  depend  upon  the  rate 

of  working,  devices  used,  and  variety  introduced  into  the  drill  ? 

Are  all  the  children  kept  busy  all  the  time  during  the  lesson? 
If  (d),  what  is  the  aim  of  the  lesson? 

1 .  Stibject-matter . 

What  is  given  the  children?  What  can  you  say  as  to  the  amount 
and  arrangement  of  this  subject-matter  and  its  connection 
with  preceding  lessons  and  those  that  are  to  follow? 

2.  T/ie  Teaching. 

Is  the  subject-matter  presented  by  means  of  objects,  representa- 
tions of  objects  (pictures,  diagrams,  models,  maps),  or  by  means 
of  words  (printed  or  oral),  or  by  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  of  these? 

Notice  what  means  (questioning  or  other)  the  teacher  uses  to 
connect  truths  taught  with  each  other  and  to  lead  to  general 
conclusions  and  their  applications. 

3.  The  Class. 

Are  they  attentive  and  interested? 

What  in  subject-matter  or  mode  of  representation  is  or  is  not 
suited  to  the  age,  knowledge,  and  ability  of  the  children  ? 

What  mental  powers  are  they  using  principally,  perceptive,  rep- 
resentative, or  thinking? 

What  kinds  of  apperceptive  knowledge  are  they  recalling: 
(i)  previous  knowledge  of  the  same  or  other  subjects  studied, 
or  (2)  knowledge  gotten  outside  of  school  by  hearsay,  obser- 
vation, and  experience?  To  what  extent  do  they  relate  the 
old  knowledge  to  the  new,  with  or  vv  ithout  suggestion  ? 


36o  FUNDAMENTALS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Notice  if  correct  general  conclusions  are  reached,  and  if  they  are 

applied  to  particular  cases  correctly. 
What  habits  of  the  class  do  you  notice? 

4.    Individual  Children. 

Report  all  individual  peculiarities  that  you  note  during  the  recita- 
tion. 

A  good  way  of  promoting  child  study  among  teachers 
is  to  call  for  reports  regarding  all  pupils  having  a  cer- 
tain characteristic  in  a  marked  degree ;  as,  quick  tem- 
per, perseverance,  poor  sight,  restlessness ;  or  regarding 
those  who  are  good  in  reading  or  spelling  or  arithmetic, 
or  those  remarkable  for  size,  quickness,  or  lack  of 
energy.  Let  each  teacher  describe  one  or  two  of  her 
pupils  who  have  in  a  marked  degree  the  characteristic 
selected,  telling  how  they  are  in  other  respects,  and 
what  she  finds  to  be  the  best  mode  of  dealing  with 
them.  Such  comparison  and  discussion  of  similar 
experiences  will  be  very  helpful  and  lead  to  further 
observations. 

REPORTS,  TESTS,  AND  RECORDS 

There  has  unquestionably  been  much  vexation  of 
spirit  and  waste  of  time  in  making  child-study  reports, 
as  well  as  in  the  reports  required  by  the  old-time  mark- 
ing system.  Such  reports,  therefore,  should  be  as  brief 
and  from  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher  as  significant  as 
possible.  One  like  the  following  may  be  made  two  or 
three  times  a  year  with  profit  to  all  concerned. 

Name  of  pupil Grade Sex Date  of  Birth . 

Particularly  good  or  poor  in  what  subjects,  if  any. 
Character  of  conduct. 


CHILD    STUDY   APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  36 1 

Remarks  regarding  characteristics  important  to  recognize  in  deal- 
ing with  the  child  (as  sensitiveness,  stubbornness,  slowness,  lack  of 
persistence,  special  interests,  special  physical  or  home  conditions, 
etc.) . 

Evidence  of  a  change  for  better  or  worse  in  work  or  conduct. 

Date Teacher  — 

Children  are  so  variable  in  their  conduct,  and  show 
forth  such  different  characteristics  to  different  persons, 
that  often  reports  are  of  little  pcTtnafient  value.  The 
best  pupil  under  one  teacher  may  be  the  worst  under 
another  teacher,  and  the  child  least  interesting  to  his 
teacher  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  may  be  the  most 
attractive  at  the  close. 

The  same  actions  may  also  be  interpreted  by  one 
teacher  as  shyness  and  by  another  as  stubbornness,  or 
as  sensitiveness  by  one  and  as  lack  of  feeling  by 
another.  For  these  reasons  it  is  often  better  for  a 
teacher  to  get  acquainted  with  her  pupils  before  she 
reads  the  reports  another  teacher  has  made  regarding 
them. 

With  data  obtained  by  tests,  and  from  inquiry  regard- 
ing the  home  life  and  past  history  of  the  child,  the 
case  is  different.  Such  facts  if  not  more  reliable,  are  at 
least  more  permanently  significant.  The  number  of  such 
facts  that  may  be  of  value  is  almost  infinite,  but  the 
number  that  it  will  be  found  practicable  to  obtain  and 
keep  on  record,  is  very  limited  in  most  schools,  where 
so  many  other  things  demand  the  immediate  attention 
of  teachers  and  superintendent.  The  admission  card 
should  state  at  least  these  facts  :  date  of  birth,  resi- 
dence, nationality  of  parents,  occupation  of  father,  and 
the  last  school  attended.     The  most  important  tests  to 


362  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

be  made  and  kept  on  file  are  those  of  hearing  and  sight. 
If  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  all  the  children  tested, 
teachers  should  themselves  closely  observe  all  signs  of 
defects  in  hearing  and  sight,  and  test  pupils  who  show 
any  signs  whatever  of  such  defects. 

Defects  of  hearing  ^xq  to  be  found  in  every  schoolroom. 
Any  pupil  who  is  habitually  inattentive  or  apparently 
careless,  or  who  watches  a  teacher's  mouth  very  closely 
when  speaking,  or  who  looks  to  see  what  other  pupils 
are  doing  before  beginning  to  follow  directions,  should 
be  observed,  and,  if- necessary,  tested,  to  discover  whether 
his  hearing  is  defective.  The  teacher  should  notice 
if  it  makes  any  difference  whether  she  stands  close  in 
front  of,  behind,  or  on  the  right  or  left  of  the  child  when 
she  speaks  to  him,  and  whether  he  shows  that  he  hears 
when  there  is  no  possible  chance  for  him  to  guess  what 
is  said. 

The  detection  of  poor  hearing  is  difficult  for  (i)  the 
defect  may  be  in  one  ear  only,  (2)  may  be  greater  at 
some  times  than  at  others,  especially  when  the  child  has 
a  cold,  (3)  if  the  attention  is  first  secured,  hearing  is 
often  surprisingly  improved,  (4)  nearly  all  children  with 
poor  hearing  have  learned  to  make  shrewd  guesses  at 
what  is  being  said.  (5)  Few  buildings  are  sufficiently 
quiet  for  accurate  tests  to  be  made. 

In  all  doubtful  cases,  at  least,  the  teacher  should  test 
the  children  with  the  watch  or  other  convenient  means. 
Several  persons  should  be  tested  with  the  watch  to  find 
out  how  far  it  can  be  heard  by  normal  ears,  for  watches 
vary  greatly  in  loudness.  The  child  should  look  straight 
ahead  and  hold  a  card  against  his  face  so  as  to  conceal 
from  his  view  the  movements  of  the  one  testing  him. 


CHILD   STUDY   APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  363 

Often  a  child  thinks  he  hears  a  watch  when  he  does  not, 
hence  it  may  be  necessary  to  occasionally  cover  it 
tightly  with  the  hands  in  such  a  way  as  to  muffle 
the  sound,  in  order  to  determine  positively  whether  or 
not  the  child  hears.  If  the  distance  in  a  quiet  room 
at  which  a  child  can  hear  a  watch  is  less  than  three  feet, 
his  hearing  is  almost  surely  defective,  and  it  may  be  if 
the  distance  is  greater. 

When  a  child  is  known  to  have  poor  hearing  nothing 
should  be  said  about  it,  but  he  should  be  placed  in  as 
favorable  a  position  as  possible  for  hearing  what  the 
teacher  and  also  his  classmates  say,  and  the  teacher 
should  take  special  pains  to  see  that  he  does  hear  all 
directions  that  he  is  expected  to  follow.  Children  with 
defective  hearing  frequently  form  habits  of  inattention, 
and  sometimes,  when  they  are  aware  of  their  deficiency, 
try  to  excuse  themselves  for  failure  to  do  things  they 
have  been  told  to  do,  on  the  ground  that  they  did  not 
understand.  The  teacher  should  take  the  greatest  pains 
to  make  this  excuse  an  impossible  one,  and  to  break  up 
habits  of  inattention.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
the  teacher  assume  that  the  child  heard,  or  could  have 
heard  if  he  had  tried,  and  blame  him  for  not  doing  so ; 
but  she  should  have  tested  him  thoroughly  so  that  she 
knows^  both  from  the  conditions  and  from  his  expression 
of  face  or  oral  acknowledgment  that  he  has  heard,  and 
then  she  should  hold  him  responsible  for  remembering 
and  doing  what  he  is  told.  To  manage  a  child  with 
poor  hearing  without  either  doing  him  an  injustice,  or 
*'  babying  "  and  unwisely  excusing  him  for  non-perform- 
ance or  imperfect  performance  of  tasks,  often  requires 
a:reat  tact  and  wisdom. 


364  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Defects  of  the  eye  are  more  common,  but  somewhat 
less  subject  to  serious  misunderstanding  than  those  of 
the  ear.  Pupils  who  hold  books  in  unusual  positions, 
who  wink  or  rub  their  eyes  a  good  deal,  who  frequently 
fail  to  do  perfectly  work  placed  on  the  board,  or  whose 
eyes  look  red,  weak,  or  tired,  or  who  have  frequent  head- 
aches, or  who  wrinkle  the  brows,  or  show  other  signs  of 
nervousness,  should  be  tested. 

One  of  the  best  cards  for  testing,  and  the  only  kind 
that  can  be  successfully  used  with  first-grade  children,  is 
one  in  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  name  the  letters,  but 
merely  to  tell  which  way  a  series  of  E's  of  different 
sizes  point.  In  order  that  there  may  be  no  misunder- 
standing, it  will  be  well,  with  small  children,  to  first  test 
them  close  enough  to  the  card  to  be  sure  that  they 
know  which  way  the  letters  point,  and  how  to  indi- 
cate the  direction  of  the  letters  by  pointing  or  by 
words.  The  child  should  then  be  placed  with  his  back 
to  a  window,  holding  a  stiff  card  over  (not  against)  one 
eye,  and  asked  to  tell  which  way  the  letters,  indicated 
with  a  pencil,  point.  The  distance  should  be  that  for 
the  smallest  or  next  to  the  smallest  letters  on  the  card, 
and,  of  course,  the  largest  letters  should  be  pointed  to 
first.  In  pointing  it  is  well  to  hold  the  pencil  vertically 
under  the  letter,  that  the  letter  may  not  be  partly 
covered,  or  shadowed,  by  the  pencil,  and  that  there  may 
be  no  doubt  as  to  which  one  is  meant.  The  record  of 
the  test  is  made  by  taking  the  distance  at  which  the 
card  is  held  as  the  numerator,  and  the  number  of  the 
last  line  of  letters  read  as  the  denominator  of  the  frac- 
tion. Thus,  if  the  distance  is  5  metres,  and  the  num- 
ber  of  the  line  last  read  is  10,  the  record  will  be  -^-^. 


CHILD    STUDY   APPLIED    IN   SCHOOLS  365 

This  means  that  the  child  can  read  at  5  metres  what 
a  normal  child  can  read  at  10  metres. 

The  above  test  will  usually,  though  not  always,  be 
sufficient  to  detect  serious  defects  of  vision,  but  in 
doubtful  cases  should  be  supplemented  by  tests  for 
near  vision  and  for  astigmatism.  As  soon  as  a  teacher 
is  fully  convinced  that  a  pupil's  eyes  are  seriously  defec- 
tive, she  should  advise  the  parents  to  have  them  exam- 
ined by  a  specialist.  In  the  meantime,  she  should  place 
the  child  where  he  will  have  the  best  conditions  possible 
for  seeing. 

If  physical  and  mental  7Jieasureme7its  and  tests  are 
practicable  in  a  school,  the  following  ones,  carefully 
selected  for  use  in  the  Model  and  Practice  Schools  of 
the  Fitchburg  Normal  School,  will  be  found  significant 
and  helpful.  The  measurements  are  made  and  the 
vital  capacity  calculated  according  to  tables  and  direc- 
tions given  in  Hastings's  Manual  for  Physical  Measure- 
ments, the  tests  of  memory  according  to  the  methods 
used  in  the  Child  Study  Laboratory  of  the  Chicago 
Public  Schools,  and  the  tests  of  sight  and  hearing  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  given  above.  The  "rate  of 
movement"  is  really  an  elementary  test  of  both  physical 
and  mental  ability  in  which  pupils  make  marks  in 
squares  as  rapidly  as  possible,  putting  one,  two,  or  three 
marks  in  each  square,  in  accordance  with  the  figure  at 
the  top  of  each  square.  The  time  required  for  making 
the  hundred  marks  is  recorded  in  seconds. 

In  the  first  column  are  placed  numerical  records  of 
the  tests,  and  in  the  second,  letters,  indicating  the  rank 
of  the  child  as  compared  with  the  average. 


366  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Front  of  Card 
Name 

Date  of  birth:  Yr Mo Day_ 


Dates  of  Tests 


Weight 

Height  standing 
Height  sitting 
Breadth  of  head 
Breadth  of  chest 
Breadth  of  waist 
Girth  of  head 
Depth  of  chest 
Chest  expansion 
Lung  capacity 
Vital  capacity 
Grip,  right  hand 
Grip,  left  hand 
Rate  of  movement 
Memory,  auditory 
Memory,  visual 
Vision  acuteness,  R. 
Vision  acuteness,  L. 
Astigmatism  ? 
Hearing,  R. 
Hearing,  L. 


Test 


Rank 


Test 


Rank 


Test 


Rank 


Test      Rank 


Note:  m.  =  medium,  h.  =  high,  v.  h.  =  very  high,  l.=low,  v.l.  =  very  low. 


CHILD   STUDY  APPLIED   IN   SCHOOLS  36;^ 

Back  of  Card 
To  Parents:  — 

Body  and  mind  are  closely  related.  Teachers  may  be  aided  in  deal- 
ing with  children  by  information  regarding  the  health  of  their  pupils  and 
what  they  do  outside  of  school.  We  therefore  ask  you  to  kindly  under- 
score the  diseases  to  which  your  child  is  subject,  and  the  occupations  in 
which  he  is  much  engaged  outside  of  school  and  to  add  any  other  facts 
that  may  be  helpful. 

DISEASES  :     Biliousness,  constipation,  indigestion,  headache,  sleepless- 
ness, nervousness,  heart,  lung,  or  throat  troubles. 
OCCUPATIONS  :     Outdoor  work,  indoor  work,  indoor  gymnastics,  out- 
door plays  and  sports,  indoor  games,  reading,  studying,  music  practice. 

Remarks : 


Signed 

Suggestions  for  Reading 

The  books  of  most  general  value  on  the  subject  of  studying  children 
in  school  are  those  of  Warner,  Rowe,  Hastings,  and  Groszmann, 
and  the  reports  of  Christopher  and  Smedley  to  the  Chicago  Board 
of  Education,  while  various  educational  journals  and  reports  of 
child-study  societies,  especially  of  Illinois  and  Minnesota,  con- 
tain numerous  outlines  and  suggestions,  and  also  some  reports 
of  school  superintendents  such  as  Spaulding  of  Passaic,  N.J. 

On  the  school  conditions,  works  on  school  hygiene,  such  as  Kotel- 
mann,  Shaw,  or  Burrage  and  Bailey,  should  be  consulted  if 
necessary,  and  also  the  following  articles:  Mosher,  ^'Habitual 
Postures  of  School  Children,""  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  IV.  pp.  339-349: 
McKenzie,  N.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  939-948;  Parnell,  "Medical 
Inspection  in  School,"  N.  E.  A.,  1898,  pp.  454-462;  Lemon, 
"  Psychic  Effect  of  the  Weather,''  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
277-279;  Dexter,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V.  pp.  512-522,  Ed.  Rev., 
Vol. XIX,  pp.  160-168;  or  Monograph  Suppl.,/'jry^^.  Rev.,l>io.6. 

On  children's  movements,  the  studies  of  Curtis,  Ped.  Sem.  Vol.  VI. 
pp.  90-106,  and  Lindley,  Am.  Jr.  Psych.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  491-517, 
while  various  tests  are  described  by  Seashore,  Ed.  Rev..,  Vol. 
XXII,  pp.  69-82,  and  Hancock,  Ped.  Sem..,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  291-340. 


368  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

On  the  practical  value  of  child  study  in  school  and  the  relations  of 
teacher,  pupils,  and  the  home,  see  Luckey,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  I 
pp.  230-247  ;  £d7^c..  Vol.  IV,  pp.  271-275  ;  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  XIV 
pp.  340-347;  Van  Liew,  M.  E.  A.,  1896,  pp.  864-872,  1897,  pp, 
294-296;  Galbreath, /r.  Ped.,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  153-170;  Patrick 
N.  E.  A.,  1895,  pp.  906-914;  Whitney,  Educ,  Vol.  XV,  pp, 
466-473;  Thayer,  Ednc,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  68-75,  142-148;  Kratz 
Fed.  Seut.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  413-418  ;  Bell,  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  VII,  pp 
492-525  ;  Baker,  £"^7/^.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp,  264-268  ;  Skinner,  Tra7is 
III.  Ch.  S.  Soc,  Vol.  II,  No.  2,  pp.  28-39;  Russell,  Ped.  Se?7i.. 
Vol.  II,  pp.  343-357- 

On  child  study  in  the  kindergarten,  see  Payne,  A^.  E.  A.,  1897,  pp 
586-593;  Mackenzie,  N.  E.  A.,  1893,  pp.  285-292;  Nicholson 
Ck.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  675-684;  Bailey,  JV.  E.  A.,  1899,  PP 
541-546. 

On  child  study  in  secondary  schools,  see  Atkinson,  School  Review 
Vol.  V,  pp.  243-284,  461-466;  Scudder,  School  Review,  Vol 
VII,  pp.  197-214  ;  Austin,  N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  487-490 

On  the  graded  system  and  individual  instruction,  see  F.  Burke 
N.  W.  Mo.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  481-484;  C.  Frear  Burk,  Ed.  Rev.. 
Vol.  XIX,  pp.  296-302  ;  Powell,  Ch.  S.  Mo..  Vol.  I,  pp.  290-305 
Search,  Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  154-170;  Barnard.  A^.  E.  A., 
1899,  pp.  163-170;  Kennedy,  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  pp.  295-300,  and 
the  N.  E.  A.  discussion,  1898,  pp.  422-448. 

On  secretiveness  of  children,  read  C.  Frear  Burk,  Ch.  S.  Mo.,  Vol. 
V,  p.  355,  and  for  interesting  individual  studies,  see  Russell, 
Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  431-442;  Stableton,  Diary  of  a  West- 
ern Schoolmaster,  and  Ck.  S.  Mo.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  451-448.  See 
also  Triplett  on  "Faults  of  Children,"  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  X, 
pp.  200-238. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  BOOKS  NAMED 
IN  THE  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

Adler,   Felix.      Moral    Instruction   of   Children.      Appleton,    1895. 

pp.  270. 
Aiken,  Catherine.      Methods   of  Mind   Training.      Harpers,    1899, 

pp.  122. 
Baldwin,  J.  M.     Mental   Development.     Vol.  I.  Methods  and  Pro- 
cesses, pp.  488  ;  Vol.  11,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations, 

pp.  514. 
Blow,  Susar>.     Symbolic  Education.     Appleton,  1894,  pp.  251. 
Bradford,  A.  H.     Heredity  and  Education.     Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 

147-159. 
Brooks,    W.    K.       Heredity.      Baltimore,  1883.      The    Foundations 

of  Zoology.     Macniillan,  New  York  and  London,  1899,  pp.  viii 

and  339. 
Brown,  E.  E.     Notes  on  Children's  Drawings.     University  of  Cali- 
fornia Studies,  1897,  pp.  75. 
Buck.  Winifred.     Boys'   Self-Governing   Clubs.     Macmillan.   1903, 

pp.  218. 
Burrage  and  Bailey.     School  Sanitation  and   Decoration.     D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co..  1899,  pp.  191. 
Butler.  N.  M.     Meaning  of  Education.     Macmillan,  1898,  pp.  230. 
Call,  Annie  Payson.     Power  Through  Repose.     Little,  Brown  &  Co., 

1902,  pp.  201. 
Chadbourne.  P.  A.     Instinct,  pp.  323.     Putnams,  1883. 
Chamberlain,  Alex.     The  Child  ;  A  Study  in  the  Evolution  of  Man. 

Scribners,  1900,  pp.  498. 
Chesley,  A.  M.     Indoor  and  Outdoor  Gymnastic  Games.     American 

Sports  PubHshing  Co.,  July,  1902.  pp.  79. 
Christopher  and  Smedley.    Reports  on  Child  Study.    Investigations, 

Reprints  from  Reports.     Chicago   Board  of  Education   for 

1898-1899,  1899-1900,  1900-1901. 
371 


372  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD    STUDY 

Clark,  E.  H.     Sex  in  Education.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1873, 

pp.  181. 
Coe.      The    Spiritual    Life.      Eaton    &    Mains,   New   York,    1900, 

pp.  279. 
Colgrove,  F.  W.     Memory ;  An  Inductive  Study.     H.  Holt  &  Co., 

1901,  pp.  369. 
Compayre,  G.     Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child. 

Part  I,  pp.  298  ;  Part  II,  Later  Infancy,  pp.  300.     Appleton. 
Dewey,  John.     Interest  as  Related  to  Will.     Second  supplement  to 

the  Herbart  Year  Book. 
The  School  and  Society.     University  of  Chicago  Press,  pp.  129. 
Donaldson.     Growth  of  the  Brain.     Scribners,  1895,  pp.  374. 
Dnimmond.     Ascent  of  Man.     James  Pott  &  Co.,  New  York,  1895, 

pp.  346. 
Du  Bois,  Patterson,     The  Point  of  Contact.     1898,  pp.  88. 

Beckoning  of  Little  Hands.     J.  D.  Wattles,  Philadelphia,  1895, 

pp.  166. 
Dugdale.     The  Jukes.     New  York,  1887. 
Eldridge-Green,  F.  W.     Memory  and  its   Cultivation.      Appleton, 

1897,  pp.  311. 
Ellis,  Havelock.     Man  and  Woman.     Scribners,  1896,  pp.  409. 
Fiske.     Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist,     pp.379. 

Destiny  of  Man.     pp.  121.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Forbush,  W.  B.     The  Boy  Problem.     Pilgrim  Press,  Chicago,  1902, 

pp.  206. 
Gale,  Harlow.     Psychological  Studies.     The  Author,  Minneapolis, 

Minn. 
Galton,  Francis.    Hereditary  Genius.    Appleton,  1 891,  pp.  390.    In- 
quiry into  Human  Faculty.     Macmillan. 
Geddes  and  Thomson.     The  Evolution  of  Sex.     Scribners,   1895, 

pp.  322. 
Greenwood,  J.  M.     Principles  of  Education  practically  applied.     Ap- 
pleton, 1898,  pp.  192. 
Groos,  Karl.     The  Play  of  Animals.     Appleton,  1898,  pp.  341. 

The  Play  of  Man.     Appleton,  1901,  pp.  412. 
Groszmann,  M.  P.  E.     A  Working  System  of  Child  Study  for  the 

Schools.     C.  W.  Bardeen,  1897,  pp.  70. 
Guyau.     Education  and  Heredity.     Scribners,  1897,  pp.  306. 


LIST  OF   BOOKS   FOR   READING  373 

Harrison,  Elizabeth.     A  Study  of  Child  Nature.     Chicago  Kinder- 
garten College,  1900,  pp.  207. 

Haskell,   Ellen   M.      Child   Observations.      Imitations   and   Allied 
Activities.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1896,  pp.  267. 

Hastings,  Wm.     A  Manual  of  Physical  Measurements.     The  Author, 
Springfield,  Mass.,  1902,  pp.  112. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.   Teaching  the  Language  Arts.  Appleton,  1898,  pp.  213. 
Studies  in  Education.     Werner,  Chicago,  1896,  pp.  384. 

Hoefding.     Outlines  of  Psychology.     Macmillan,  1893,  pp.  365. 

Jacobi,  Mary  P.     Psychological  Notes  on  Primary  Education  and 
the  Study  of  Language.     Putnams,  1889.  pp.  120. 

James.     Varieties    of    Religious   Experiences.      Longmans,   Green 
&  Co.,  1902,  pp.  534. 
Psychology.     Briefer  course.     H.  Holt  &  Co.,  1893,  pp.  478. 

Jastrow,  J.  J.     Fact  and  Fable  in  Psychology.     Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.,  1900,  pp.  375. 

Jordan,  David  Starr.  Foot-notes  to  Evolution.  Appleton,  1898,  pp.  392. 

Jordan  and  Kellogg.     Animal  Life.     Appleton,  1901,  pp.  329. 

Judd,  Chas.  H.     Genetic  Psychology.     Appleton.  1903,  pp.  328. 

Kay,  David.     Memory,  what  it  is  and  how  to  improve  it.     Apple- 
ton,  1895,  pp.  340. 

Koons,  Rev.  W.  G.     The  Child's  Religious  Life.     Eaton  &  Mains, 
New  York,  1903,  pp.  270. 

Kotelmann,  Ludwig.     School  Hygiene.     Translated  by  J.  A.  Berg- 
strom.     C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  1899,  pp.  391. 

Ladd.     Physiological  Psychology.     Scribners. 

Lindsay.     Mind  in  the  Lower  Animals.     Vol.  I,  In  Health.     Apple- 
ton,  1880,  pp.  543. 

Loeb,  Jacques.     Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Brain   and  Com- 
parative Psychology.     Putnams,  1902,  pp.  309. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John.     On  the  Senses.  Instincts,  and  Intelligence  of 
Animals.     Appleton,  1897,  pp.  292. 

Lucas,  E.  V.  and  E.    What  shall  we  do  now  ?     Frederick  Stokes 
Co.,  New  York,  1901,  pp.  390. 

Malleson,  Mrs.  F.     Notes  on  the  Early  Training  of  Children.     D. 
C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  1892,  pp.  127. 

Marshall,   H.    R.      Instinct   and    Reason.      Macmillan,    1898,  pp. 
573' 


374  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

Marwedel,  E.  Conscious  Motherhood.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston, 
1889,  pp.  560. 

Mills,  W.  Nature  and  Development  of  Animal  Intelligence.  Mac- 
millan,  1898,  pp.  307. 

Mitchell,  S.  Weir.  Wear  and  Tear  or  Hints  for  the  Overworked. 
Lippincott,  1897,  pp.  76. 

Monroe,  W.  S.  Bibliography  of  Education.  Appleton,  1897,  pp. 
202.     Reference  on  Child  Study,  pp.  125-131. 

Moore,  Katharine.  The  Mental  Development  of  the  Child.  Mono- 
graph supple.  Psych.  Rev.     Macmillan,  1896,  pp.  150. 

Morgan,  C.  L.     Introduction  to   Comparative  Psychology.     Scrib- 
ners,  1896,  pp.  382. 
Animal  Life  and  Intelligence.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1895,  pp.  512. 
Psychology  for  Teachers.     Scribners,  1898,  pp.  240. 

Morley,  Margaret  W.     A  Song  of  Life.     McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago, 
1896,  pp.  155. 
Life  and  Love.     pp.  214. 

Morrison,  W.  D.     Juvenile  Offenders.     Appleton,  1897,  pp.  317. 

Miiller.  F.  Max,     Three  Introductory  Lectures  on  the  Science   of 
Thoughts.     Open  Court  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago,  pp.  125. 

Newell,  Wm.  W.  Games  and  Songs  of  American  Children.  Har- 
pers, 1884,  pp.  242. 

Oppenheim,  Nathan.     The  Development  of  the  Child.     Macmillan, 
1898,  pp.  296. 
Mental  Growth  and  Control.      1902,  pp.  296. 

Orr,  H.  B.  Theory  of  Development  and  Heredity.  Macmillan,  1895, 
pp.  ix  and  225. 

Preyer,  W.  The  Mind  of  the  Child.  Part  I,  Senses  and  Will, 
PP-  353  i  P^''^  II>  Development  of  the  Intellect,  pp.  317.  Ap- 
pleton, 1895. 

Proudfoot,  A.  Hofer.  Mothers'  Ideals.  The  Author,  Chicago,  1897, 
pp.  270. 

Ribot,  Th.  The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions.  Scribners,  1897,  pp.  455. 
Heredity.     Appleton,  1893,  pp.  393. 

Riis,  Jacob.  The  Children  of  the  Poor.  Scribners,  1892,  pp. 
300. 

Romanes,  Geo.  J.  Darwin  and  after  Darwin.  Vol.  II,  Heredity  and 
Utility.     Open  Court  Publishing  Co.,  1897,  pp.  344. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS   FOR   READING  375 

An  Examination  of  Weismannism.    Open  Court  Publishing  Co., 
pp.  221. 

Animal  Intelligence.     Appleton,  1897,  pp.  520. 

Mental  Evolution  in  Animals.     Appleton,  1898,  pp.  411. 

Mental  Evolution  in  Man.     Appleton,  1893,  pp.  452. 
Rowe,  S.  H.     The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.     Macmillan,  1899, 

pp.  207. 
Search,  P.  W.     An  Ideal  School.     Appleton,  1901,  pp.  357. 
Shaw.     School  Hygiene.     Macmillan,  1901,  pp.  260. 
Shinn,  Milicent  W.     Notes  on  the  Development  of  a  Child,    pp.  424. 
Sidis.     Psychology  of  Suggestion.     Appleton,  1898,  pp.  386. 
Smith,  W.  H.     The  Evolution  of  Dodd.     McNally,  Chicago,  1891, 

PP-  153- 
Spencer,   Herbert.     Education  —  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical. 

Appleton,  1862. 
Stableton,  Diary  of  a  Western  Schoolmaster.     Ainsworth  &  Co., 

Chicago,  1900,  pp.  140. 
Starbuck,  E.  D.      The  Psychology  of  Religion.      Scribners,  1900, 

pp.  423. 
Stoneroad,   Rebecca.      Gymnastic   Stories   and   Plays   for   Primary 

Schools.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  pp.  86. 
Stout.     Manual  of  Psychology.     Hinds  &  Noble,  New  York. 
Sully,  James.     Studies  in  Childhood.     Appleton,  1895,  pp.  527. 
Thorndike,  Edward  E.     Notes  on  Child    Study.     Macmillan,  1901, 

pp.  157. 
Animal  Intelligence.     Monograph   supplement,  Psych.  Rev.,  No. 

8,  1898,  pp.  109. 
Human  Nature  Club.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1902,  pp.  235. 
Tracy,  Frederick.     Psychology  of  Childhood.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 

1897,  pp.  170. 
Vincent,  Geo.  E.     The  Social   Mind   and   Education.     Macmillan, 

1897,  pp.  155. 
Waldstein,  Lewis.    The  Sub-Conscious  Self.    Scribners,  1897,  pp.  171. 
Warner,  Francis.     The  Study  of  Children  and  their  School  Training. 

Macmillan,  1897,  pp.  264. 
Weismann,  A.     The  Germ  Plasm.     Scribners,  1893,  pp.  477. 
White,  E.  E.     School  Management.     American  Book  Co.,  1894. 
Whitney.     Life  and  Growth  of  Language.     Appleton.  1893,  pp.  396. 


376  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   CHILD    STUDY 

Wiggin,  K.  D.     Children's  Rights.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1896, 

pp.  235. 
Winship.     The  Jukes  —  Edwards.    New  England  Pub.  Co. 
Winterburn,  Florence  H.    Nursery  Ethics.     Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,  New 

York,  1899,  pp.  241. 
From  the  Child's  Standpoint,  pp.  278. 
Wilson,  E.  B.     The  Cell  in  Development  and  Inheritance.     Mac- 

millan,  1897,  pp.  377. 
Wundt,  W.     Lectures  on  Human  and  Animal  Psychology.     Swan 

Sonnenschein  &  Co.,  1894,  pp.  454. 

Journals  and  Proceedings  referred  to  frequently 

Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association 

(N.  E.  A.),  Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary,  Winona,  Minn.  Con- 
tains all  addresses  given  in  Child  Study  Section  from  1893  to 
the  present. 

American  Journal  of  Psychology  (Am.  Jr.  Psych.),  Worcester,  Mass. 
Mostly  psychological,  but  contains  a  number  of  valuable 
articles  on  Child  Study. 

Child  Study  Monthly  (Ch.  S.  Mo.),  A.  W.  Mumford,  publisher, 
Chicago,  111.  Devoted  wholly  to  Child  Study  from  1894  to 
1900,  then  changed  and  finally  merged  in  Journal  of  Child- 
hood and  Adolescence,  Seattle,  Wash. 

Education  (Ed.),  Boston,  Mass.  Occasional  Child  Study  articles 
of  value. 

Educational  Review  (Ed.  Rev.),  New  York  City. 

Journal  of  Child  Study  and  Adolescence  (Jr.  Ch.  S.  and  Adoles.), 
Seattle,  Wash. 

Journal  of  Pedagogy  (Jr.  Ped.),  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  Some  very  good 
articles  on  Child  Study. 

Monograph  Supplement  to  the  Psychological  Review  (Monograph 
Supple.  Psych.  Rev.),  Macmillan. 

Northwestern  Monthly  (N.  W.  Mo.),  Lincoln,  Neb.  (Not  now 
published.)  The  Child  Study  Department  of  this  Journal, 
edited  by  G.  W.  A.  Luckey,  1896- 1899,  was  very  valuable. 

Paidologist  (Paid.),  Cheltenham,  England.  Organ  of  the  British 
Child  Study  Association. 


LIST   OF   BCX)KS    FOR    READING  377 

Pedagogical    Seminary     (abbreviation,    Ped.     Sem.),     Worcester, 

Mass.     Devoted  almost  wholly  to   Child   Study.     Contains 

all  the  principal  studies  made   at   Clark   University.     Verj- 

valuable. 
Popular  Science  Monthly  (Pop.  Sci.  Mo.)   contains  many  articles 

on  topics  related  to  Child  Study. 
Psychological  Review   (Psych.  Rev.),  Macmillan,  New  York  City. 

Mostly  psychological,  but  a  few  articles  on  Child  Study  are 

found  in  it. 
Studies   from  the  Yale   Psychological  Laboratory    (Yale  Studies), 

New  Haven,  Conn. 
Transactions  of  the  Illinois  Child  Study  Society  (Trans.  111.  Ch.  S. 

Soc),  Chicago  University    Press,   Chicago,  111.      Much  of 

interest  in   the   early  stage  of  the    Child   Study  movement. 

and  some  articles  of  permanent  value,  1894-1900. 
University  of  Iowa  Studies  (Iowa  Univ.  Studies),  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES 

Wilson.  Bibliography  of  Child  Study.  Clark  University,  Worces- 
ter, Mass.     Very  valuable. 

McDonald.  Experimental  Study  of  Children.  Chapters  xxi  and 
XXV  from  the  ileport  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1 897-1 898.  Contains  a  very  extensive  bibliography.  See 
also  the  Psychological  Index,  issued  in  connection  with  the 
Psychological  Review  each  year  since  1895. 

Chamberlain.     The  Child.     A  large  bibliography  at  the  close. 


INDEX 


Abnormalities,  in  rate  of  growth,  21 ; 
sexual,  116;  defined  and  described, 
321. 

Adaptation,  to  changes  in  environ- 
ment, 5. 

Adaptive  instincts,  described,  56;  de- 
velopment of,  129-179;  ranked 
morally,  167. 

Adenoid  growths,  338.  ^ 

Adolescence,  a  transition  period,  3;  a 
period  of  rapid  growth,  17,  20; 
strength  of  sex  feeling,  116;  relation 
to  altruism  or  selfishness,  124 ;  re- 
ligious awakening  at,  200;  a  time  of 
great  individuality,  309. 

/Esthetic  instinct,  mentioned,  62;  re- 
lation to  sexual  impulse,  112;  dis- 
cussed, 209  ;  in  drawing,  242. 

Altruism,  as  a  form  of  the  social  in- 
stinct, 119;  development  of,  123. 

Amusements,  nature  and  value,  150 ; 
of  children  outside  of  school,  347. 

Anger,  relation  to  fighting  and  mode 
of  treatment,  105;  as  an  instinctive 
emotion,  215. 

Approbation,  love  of,  by  children,  95; 
as  a  form  of  the  social  instinct,  119; 
development  of,  121. 

Arrest  of  development,  23. 

Astigmatism,  342. 

Atavism,  293. 

Attention,  relation  to  curiosity  and  in- 
terest, 168 ;  in  constructive  imagina- 
tion, 264. 


Brain,  always  being  modified,  8; 
growth  of,  19 ;  development  of  cells 
in,  24 ;  some  abnormal  states  of,  332. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  25. 

Bryan,  experiments  of,  27,  253. 


Barnes,  on  interests  of  children,  173, 
Bentley,  experiments  of,  253. 
Bergstrom,  on  card  sorting,  250. 
Bolton,  experiments  on  memory,  254. 


Cells,  increase  in  number  and  size,  15; 
effects  of  exercise  on,  23  ;  union  of,  in 
heredity,  289;  germ,  in  heredity,  294. 

Child  study,  nature  of,  i;  origin,  2; 
period  covered  by,  3;  problem  of, 
10;  distinct  from  psychology  and 
physiology,  2;  basis  of  education,  3; 
subject-matter  of,  as  a  science,  11 ; 
as  applied  to  the  problem  of  interest, 
171;  emphasizes  individuality,  310; 
applied  in  school,  346;  purpose  of, 
by  teachers,  346. 

Chorea,  335. 

Chums,  120. 

Circular  reaction,  57, 

Coeducation,  114. 

Collecting  instinct,  mentioned,  62; 
discussed,  205. 

Companions,  importance  in  childhood, 
119;  influence  of,  in  moral  develop- 
ment, 196;  imaginary,  138,  261.    . 

Competition,  prominence  and  value, 
III ;  in  plays  and  games,  157,  162. 

Concepts,  as  guides  in  idealistic  imita- 
tion, 133;   development  of,  271. 

Consciousness,  instincts  and,  35  ;  use- 
fulness of,  38 ;  of  the  young  infant, 
70 ;  as  a  help  in  learning,  85. 
i  Constructive   instinct,  mentioned,  62; 
i      discussed,  C07. 
;  Contrariness,  see  Suggestion. 

Curiosity,  as  an  adaptive  instinct,  59; 
excited  by  attempts  to  suppress,  117 ; 

379 


38o 


INDEX 


in  learning  new  things,  i6o;  devel- 
opment of,  i66 ;  attention  and  inter- 
est,    i68 ;     changes    in,    171 ;     and 
education,  174. 
Curtis,  experiments  of,  253. 

Davis,  on  individuality  in  learning,  316. 
Defects,  in  hearing,  339,  362 ;  in  sight, 

341.364. 

Development,  inner  and  outer  factors 
in,  7;  of  each  instinct  at  a  definite 
time,  8  ;  generality  of  inner  forces  of, 
II;  child  study  concerned  with  the 
laws  of,  11;  growth  and,  22;  arrest 
and  acceleration  of,  23 ;  natural  order 
in  relation  to  exercise,  24 ;  effects  of 
specialization  on,  26;  native  motor 
activities  and  general  order  of,  32; 
general  principles  determining  the 
order  of,  44;  of  individual  and  of 
race,  45 ;  natural  order  difficult  to 
determine,  48  ;  of  the  human  infant, 
65 ;  of  voluntary  control,  72 ;  of  in- 
dividualistic instincts,  91 ;  individual- 
ism, the  basis  of  higher,  96 ;  of  pa- 
rental instinct,  109  ;  of  social  instinct, 
119;  of  imitation,  129;  of  play,  142;  of 
regulative  instincts,  205  ;  of  expressive 
instincts,  221 ;  of  intellect,  247. 

Discrimination,  development  of,  251 ; 
in  perception,  257,  258 ;  individual 
differences  in,  311. 

Dramatic  imitation,  131,  136. 

Dramatic  play,  157,  162. 

Drawing,  240. 

Education,  child  study  the  basis  of,  3; 
function,  to  develop  adaptive  ability, 
7 ;  play  as  a  factor  in,  158 ;  necessity 
as  a  means  of,  158 ;  curiosity  and, 
174 ;  aim  of,  as  a  science,  177. 

Egoism,  of  young  child,  96. 

Embarrassment,  as  related  to  the  social 
instinct,  55. 

Embryo,  growth  by  increase  of  cells, 
15 ;  of  a  frog,  development  when 
divided,  16,  294;  stages  of  develop- 
ment, 45 ;  characteristics  of,  in  hered- 
ity, 293 ;  effects  of  food  on,  294. 


Emotions,  relation  to  their  expression, 
87 ;  changes  at  adolescence,  123 ; 
connected  with  various  instincts, 
215 ;  of  anger,  105,  215 ;  of  embar- 
rassment, 55  ;  of  fear,  43,  53,  66. 

Environment,  variations  in,  5 ;  influ- 
ence of,  10 ;  in  relation  to  usefulness 
of  instincts,  38;  helpful  in  racial 
advancement,  298. 

Equilibrium,  of  function,  25;  infants' 
attempts  at,  66,  68. 

Exercise,  natural  order  of  development 
in  relation  to,  24 ;  injurious  when  ex- 
cessive, 26. 

Exercises  for  Students,  see  Table  of 
Contents. 

Expressive  instinct,  mentioned,  62; 
shown  early  in  crying,  66 ;  develop- 
ment of,  221. 

Fatigue,  nature  and  causes,  321 ;  laws 
of,  324 ;  tests  and  signs  of,  331. 

Fear,  specialized  by  experience,  43  ;  a 
form  of  the  individualistic  instincts, 
53  ;  of  falling,  66,  100 ;  development 
of,  99;  of  the  dark,  loi. 

Feeding  instinct,  specialized  by  expe- 
rience, 47  ;  a  form  of  the  individual- 
istic instinct,  53  ;  development  of,  99. 

Feelings,  connection  with  instincts,  62 ; 
relation  to  instinctive  actions,  215; 
relation  to  fundamental  stimuli,  217. 

Fetichism,  iii. 

Fighting,  a  form  of  the  individualistic 
instinct,  52;  discussion  of,  104;  re- 
lated to  parental  instinct,  iii;  rela- 
tion to  anger,  215. 

Frear,  on  imitation,  135. 

Friedrich,  experiments  on  fatigue,  329. 

Games,  intermediate  between  work 
and  play,  150 ;  use  of,  in  education, 
161. 

Gilbert,  experiments  of,  252,  253. 

Gregariousness,  a  form  of  the  social 
instinct,  119;  development  of,  119. 

Groos,  on  theory  of  play,  147. 

Growth,  and  development,  15;  gen- 
eral phenomena  of,  15 ;  factors  de- 


INDEX 


381 


termining,  17;  of  parts,  19;  and 
health,  20  ;  rate  of,  and  health,  21; 
and  development,  22;  arrest  and 
acceleration  of,  23 ;  individuality  in, 
3"- 

Habits,  in  moral  training,  186;  in  re- 
ligious training,  199 ;  in  intellectual 
development,  248 ;  formation  of,  in 
school,  350;  of  inattention  by  chil- 
dren with  defective  hearing,  363. 

Hale,  theory  of  the  origin  of  language, 
222. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  as  the  father  of  child  study, 
vi;  theory  regarding  doll  play,  iii; 
as  a  collector  of  data  regarding  ideas 
of  natural  phenomena,  217  ;  on  con- 
tents of  children's  minds,  273. 

Hall,  Superintendent  I.  F.,  description 
of  how  his  little  girl  learned  to  walk, 
80. 

Hancock,  experiments  of,  27,  253. 

Hastings,  on  relation  of  size  and  intel- 
ligence, 311. 

Hearing,  defects  of,  339 ;  treatment  of 
pupils  with  defects  of,  362. 

Heredity,  as  an  inner  force  of  develop- 
ment, II;  meaning,  289;  laws,  290; 
general  theory,  293 ;  social,  297 ;  re- 
lation to  individuality,  307. 

Hertel,  investigations  of,  20. 

Humor  as  an  instinctive  feeling,  216. 

Ideals,  in  idealistic  imitation,  133,  141 ; 
in  moral  training,  188,  192,  195. 

Images,  in  dramatic  imitation,  131 ; 
power  of  forming,  259 ;  in  construc- 
tive imagination,  263. 

Imagination,  as  related  to  fear,  loi ;  in 
dramatic  imitation,  136;  in  play,  155, 
161 ;  growth  of  constructive,  263 ; 
development  of  creative,  265. 

Imaginary  companions,  common  with 
children,  138  ;  of  young  children,  261, 

Imitation,  as  one  of  the  adaptive  in- 
stincts, 58 ;  as  a  mode  of  learning, 
83 ;  when  best  used  in  learning,  85  ; 
development  of,  129 ;  characteristics 
of,  in   children,   129;    classification, 


131 ;  reflex,  defined,  131,  discussed, 
133;  spontaneous,  defined,  131,  dis- 
cussed, 134;  dramatic,  defined,  131, 
discussed,  136;  voluntary,  defined, 
132,  discussed,  136;  idealistic,  de- 
fined, 133,  discussed,  141 ;  in  play, 
157 ;  as  a  cause  of  interest,  169 ;  as  a 
factor  in  language  learning,  223,  227. 

In-breeding,  effects  of,  292. 

Individualism,  prominent  in  first  school 
years,  95 ;  the  basis  of  higher  devel- 
opment, 96. 

Individualistic  instinct,  described,  52 ; 
development  of,  91 ;  strength  of,  91 ; 
prominence  in  the  young,  92 ;  de- 
velopment into  motives,  94  ;  opposed 
to  sympathy,  121 ;  ranked  morally, 
187." 

Individuality,  asserted  in  contrary  sug- 
gestions, 135  ;  developed  by  dramatic 
imitation,  143  ;  significance,  302 ;  bio- 
logical value,  303  ;  commonality  and, 
305  ;  factors  producing  it,  307  ;  time 
of  greatest,  308  ;  illustrations  of,  310 ; 
necessity  of  recognizing,  312;  how 
developed,  314;  types  of,  315;  in 
fatigue,  332. 

Individuals,  measurement  of,  17; 
growth  peculiar  to,  17;  causes  of 
differences  in,  46  ;  treatment  of,  354; 
suggestions  for  observing,  358. 

Infancy,  significance  of,  3  ;  why  long  in 
man,  4 ;  plasticity  of,  6. 

Infant,  early  development  of,  65. 

Inheritance,  in  learning  movements, 
83  ;  from  both  lines  of  ancestry,  290 ; 
of  acquired  characteristics,  297. 

Instincts,  a  definite  time  for  develop- 
ment, 8  ;  in  relation  to  structure,  34 ; 
and  consciousness,  35  ;  always  blind, 
38;  numerous  in  man,  39;  condi- 
tions affecting  the  usefulness  of,  40 ; 
fixed  and  indefinite,  42 ;  continuous, 
transient,  and  periodic,  44;  general 
principles  determining  order  of  de- 
velopment of,  44 ;  when  plastic,  43  ; 
classification  of,  51 ;  individualistic, 
described,  52 ;  parental,  described, 
53;  social,  described,  54;   adaptive, 


382 


INDEX 


described,  56 ;  regulative,  described, 
60;  resultant  and  miscellaneous, 
mentioned,  62;  relation  of,  to  mental 
activities,  86 ;  development  of  the  in- 
dividualistic, 91 ;  development  of  the 
parental,  109 ;  development  of  the 
social,  118 ;  development  of  adaptive, 
129;  imitative,  129;  of  play,  147;  of 
curiosity,  166 ;  development  of  regu- 
lative, 181 ;  development  of  resultant, 
205 ;  development  of  expressive,  221 ; 
relation  to  intellect,  247 ;  develop- 
ment by  natural  selection,  296. 

Instinctive  movements  defined,  33;  re- 
lation to  feelings,  215 ;  stage  of  lan- 
guage, 226. 

Intellect,  development  of,  247. 

Intelligence,  relation  of  movements  to, 
38,  87 ;  functions  of,  247 ;  favored  by 
natural  selection,  296. 

Interest,  relation  to  curiosity  and  atten- 
tion, 168 ;  empirical  and  speculative, 
172;  in  language,  239;  in  drawing, 
242. 

Jacobs,  experiments  on  memory,  254. 

James,  on  instincts  and  emotions,  215. 

Jastrovi^,  experiments  on  memory,  254, 
268. 

Jealousy,  as  related  to  the  social  in- 
stinct, 55;  as  an  instinctive  feeling, 
215. 

Jennings,  experiments  on  paramecia, 

36. 
Judd,  on  unconscious  modification  of 

illusions,  248. 
Jukes  family  as  illustration  of  heredity, 

299. 

Kohler,  on  interests  of  children,  173. 

Lancaster,  on  appreciation  of  beauty 
at  puberty,  112;  on  early  success  of 
great  musicians,  212. 

Language,  of  natural  signs,  221 ;  broad 
meaning  of,  222 ;  auditory,  222 ;  fac- 
tors in  its  acquisition,  222 ;  stages  of 
learning,  226 ;  instinctive  stage,  226 ; 
playful    and    imitative    stage,    227 ; 


word-learning  stage,  228;  sentence- 
making  stage,  233 ;  visual,  237 ; 
stages  of  secret  languages,  239; 
stages  compared  with  those  of  draw- 
ing, 240 ;  as  a  means  of  imaging,  259 ; 
as  an  end  in  forming  concepts,  271 ; 
lessons  as  means  of  child  study,  349. 

Law,  respect  for,  produced  by  games, 
153 ;  in  obedience,  189 ;  regard  for, 
in  transition  stage,  193. 

Learning,  to  walk,  79;  modes  of,  81: 
stages  of,  in  language,  226;  visual 
language,  237. 

Learoyd  and  Calkins,  on  continued 
stories,  268. 

Loeb,  on  analysis  of  instincts,  34,  37. 

Lombard,  experiments  on  fatigue,  326. 

Memory,  in  voluntary  imitations,  132 ; 
in  play,  162;  development  of,  268; 
individual  differences  in,  311. 

Mental  activities,  in  infancy,  69;  re- 
lation to  instincts,  86. 

Mental  development,  similar  to  mus- 
cular, 28. 

Mental  differences  between  children 
and  adults,  2. 

Mental  grasp,  increase  in,  254 ;  in  con- 
structive imagination,  264. 

Migratory  instinct,  213. 

Moore,  Mrs.,  illustration  of  pronun- 
ciation, 231. 

Moral  instinct,  described,  61 ;  develop- 
ment of,  181 ;  preparatory  stage,  181 ; 
training  during  the  preparatory 
stage,  182 ;  transition  stage,  191 ; 
training  in  the  transition  stage,  193. 

Motives,  development  of  individual- 
istic instinct  into,  94;  appeal  to  the 
highest,  186 ;  rank  of,  187. 

Movements,  kinds,  32;  automatic,  de- 
fined, 32;  reflex,  defined,  33;  in- 
stinctive, defined,  33;  spontaneous, 
56 ;  of  an  infant,  65 ;  reflex,  at  birth, 
65 ;  instinctive,  65 ;  spontaneous,  in 
infants,  67,  82;  increase  in  complex- 
ity of,  67  ;  development  of  voluntary 
control  of,  73;  relation  to  mental 
states,  87. 


INDEX 


383 


Natural  selection,  in  heredity,  296 ;  in- 
dividuality necessary  to  effective  ac- 
tion of,  303. 

Necessity,  as  a  factor  in  education,  158  ; 
compared  with  curiosity,  167;  as  a 
factor  in  language  learning,  224;  in 
perception.  256. 

Nerve  signs,  333. 

Nervousness,  334. 

Nutrition,  as  a  factor  in  growth,  18; 
influence  on  sex,  294;  relation  to 
fatigue,  334. 

Obedience,  in  moral  training,  189. 

Old  age,  a  field  for  study,  3 ;  effects  of 
exercise  in,  24. 

Optic  nerve,  experiments  on,  9. 

Outlines  for  observation,  356;  for  the 
study  of  a  new  school,  357;  for  ob- 
serving individual  pupils,  358 ;  for 
observing  a  recitation,  359. 

Paidology,  2. 

Paramecia,  experiments  on,  36, 

Parental  instinct,  described,  53  ;  devel- 
opment of,  109 ;  relation  to  other  in- 
stincts, III;  right  development  of, 
113;  ranked  morally,  184. 

Partridge,  experiments  of,  253. 

Perception,  tested  in  play,  156,  161 ; 
development  of,  256. 

Phillips,  on  color  and  number  associa- 
tions, 262. 

Plasticity,  necessary  in  changes  of  en- 
vironment, 5  ;  in  human  infancy,  6 ; 
less  after  puberty,  271. 

Plato,  on  curiosity,  174. 

Play,  specialization  in,  26;  as  a  correc- 
tive of  special  training,  28 ;  as  an 
adaptive  instinct,  58 ;  of  infant,  68 ; 
relation  to  sexual  impulse,  iii; 
theory  of,  147  ;  compared  with  work 
and  amusement,  149;  changes  as 
regards  freedom,  151 ;  changes  as 
regards  powers  used,  153 ;  changes 
as  regards  instincts  involved,  156 ; 
as  a  factor  in  education,  158 ;  in  re- 
lation to  interest,  169  ;  as  a  factor  in 
language  learning,  224,  227. 


Porter,  on  relation  of  size  and  intelli- 
gence, 311. 

Pronunciation,  in  learning  to  talk,  229 ; 
in  relation  to  stuttering,  337. 

Puberty,  a  cridcal  period,  20;  sexual 
influences  slight  until,  no;  apprecia- 
tion of  beauty  at,  112;  ambitions 
stirred  at,  122;  impulse  to  act  for 
others,  271;  vivid  images  at,  262; 
brain  less  plastic  at,  271, 

Public  sentiment,  growth  of  regard  for, 
113;  in  moral  development,  196. 

Punishment,  results  of  lack  of,  98 ; 
versus  necessity  and  play,  160 ;  should 
be  adapted  to  the  individual,  354. 

Reaction  time,  changes  with  age,  253. 

Reasoning,  in  plays,  156 ;  development 
of,  274. 

Records  of  reports  and  tests,  360. 

Reflexes,  defined,  33 ;  and  conscious- 
ness, 35;  instincts  analyzed  into, 
37. 

Regulative  instinct,  described,  60; 
development  of,  181. 

Religious  instinct,  described,  61 ;  de- 
velopment, 197. 

Reports  of  tests  and  records,  360. 

Resultant  instincts,  described,  62;  de- 
velopment of,  205. 

Reversion,  defined  and  illustrated,  293. 

Rhythm,  in  fatigue,  326. 

Rhythmic  instinct,  214. 

Rivalry  of  individuals,  95 ;  of  group 
with  group,  125 ;  treatment  of,  by 
teachers,  353. 

Rules,  effects  of,  98;  in  games,  151; 
in  moral  training,  194. 

St,  Vitus's  dance,  335. 

Self-control,    in    moral    development, 

191,  194. 
Selfhess,  extreme  in  children,  95  ;  really 

present  at  puberty,  124. 
Sensations,  as  elements  in  perception, 

256. 
Sentences,  of  young  children,  233. 
Sexual  feelings,  when  experienced,  109  ; 

relation  to  other  impulses  and  feel- 


384 


INDEX 


ings,  III ;  avoidance  of  premature 
development,  113;  instruction,  114. 

Shaw,  on  interest  of  children,  173;  ex- 
periments on  memory,  269. 

Sight,  defects  of,  341 ;  treatment  of 
pupils  with  defects  of,  364. 

Small,  on  imitation  of  animals,  130 ;  on 
suggestibility  of  children,  257. 

Smedley,  experiments  on  memory,  254, 
263. 

Social  instinct,  described,  54  ;  develop- 
ment of,  118  ;  ranked  morally,  187. 

Spaulding,  experiments  on  chickens,  42. 

Specialization,  likely  to  interfere  with 
natural  order  of  development,  26; 
in  the  work  of  the  school,  27 ;  rela- 
tion to  play,  151. 

Spencer,  on  theory  of  play,  147. 

Stuttering  and  stammering,  337. 

Suggestibility,  of  children,  257. 

Suggestion,  in  the  schoolroom,  353; 
contrary,  135. 

Suggestions  for  reading,  see  Table  of 
Contents. 

Sympathy  of  child,  of  the  reflex  type, 
95 ;  based  on  regard  for  self,  98 ;  a 
form  of  the  social  instinct,  119;  de- 
velopment of,  120;  as  a  factor  in 
language  learning,  225. 

Taste,  when  prominent,  99. 

Teacher,  needs  to  know  both  general 
and  individual  instincts,  12;  parental 
instincts  of,  in  ;  approval  of,  desired 
by  pupils,  122 ;  should  utilize  public 
sentiment,  123 ;  should  utilize  play 
instinct,  160 ;  often  identifies  amuse- 
ment with  interest,  175 ;  child  study 


by,  346 ;  study  of  a  school  by,  348 ; 
should  observe  habits  of  school,  350 ; 
should  keep  herself  in  good  health, 
352 ;  should  study  social  relations  in 
school,  353;  study  and  treatment  of 
individual  children,  354;  manage- 
ment of  partially  deaf  children,  362. 

Tests,  360. 

Thorndike,  on  imitation,  130 ;  on  prac- 
tice in  judging  length  of  lines,  250 ; 
on  fatigue,  324. 

Trial  and  success,  as  a  mode  of  learn- 
ing, 83  ;  when  best  used,  85. 

Understanding,  as  a  mode  of  learning, 

84  ;  when  best  used,  85. 
Ungraded  rooms,  need  of,  355. 

Vocabularies,  of  children,  232. 

Volition,  development  of  voluntary 
control,  72  ;  developed  from  instinc- 
tive reactions,  87. 

Voluntary  imitations,  132,  134. 

Vostrovsky,  on  interests  of  children,  174 

Walk,  learning  to,  79,  232. 

Warner,  on  defects  of  development,  333. 

Weismann,  theory  of  heredity,  295,  297. 

Will,  a  new  state  of  consciousness  in 
the  infant,  73. 

Wolfe,  experiments  on  images,  262. 

Words,  stage  of  learning,  228  ;  closely 
associated  with  objects,  260;  a 
means  of  abstract  thought,  272. 

Work,  relation  to  play,  148. 

Writing,  in  relation  to  muscular  de- 
velopment, 27;  in  learning  visual 
language,  238. 


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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


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